Zinc Information

Zinc And Fertility

2008-08-22T02:40:00.004-07:00

Infertility is defined as an inability to conceive after one year or more of regular sexual activity without the use of a contraceptive.

The number of men suffering from male infertility is astonishing. Many causes have been linked as contributory factors to infertility in men, including: Alcohol, smoking, drugs, pollutions and stress. Much research has been done in this subject matter and medical community concludes that Zinc may hold the answer to increasing fertility in sub fertile men.

Many of the health benefits of Zinc have been know for quite sometime. Zinc is necessary for:

Zinc is a wide-ranging mineral and it contains over 200 of the body's enzymes. Semen and its constituents generally contain a high volume on the mineral. Zinc deficiency leads to decreased numbers of sperm and impotence in men.

* Biochemical reactions to take place within your body
* To support healthy immune system
* Healing cuts and bruises
* Helping you maintain a sense of taste and smell
* Growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence

Recently completed study has brought yet another proof of the link between Zinc and the production of sperm by the testicles. A group of men were given daily supplements of Folic Acid and Zinc Sulphate in order to assess their effect on spermatogenesis. The researchers found that the two substances had significantly increased the sperm concentration in sub fertile men. Although the mechanisms involved in the concentration of sperm are still unclear and require further studying, it is quite clear that Zinc and the Folic Acid can help men who are less fertile to conceive children.

Men interested in improved sperm production should consider a zinc supplementation. The daily dose of 66 milligrams of Zinc Sulphate are safe, since none of the men involved in the study has reported any side effects. This means that you can supplement your own daily intake of minerals, although you should talk the matter with a doctor before putting yourself at any kind of risk.

Tom Donne is a full time SEO worker and a freelance writer who contributes articles on different subjects.

Check out the website about man related health news.
http://naturalpenisenlarge.biz/ http://pheromonetoattractwoman.biz/

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Zinc - Why Do We Need It?

2008-08-22T02:40:00.003-07:00

Zinc is an essential mineral. Every cell in the body needs this nutrient. It fuels the activity of approximately a hundred of different enzymes that support biochemical reactions in the body.

How zinc benefits the body:

- It promotes health, growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence. Sufficient amount of zinc intake is important during pregnancy to ensure normal growth and development of the fetus. It is also important for the growth and development of children;

- It helps keep the immune system healthy by building the resistance capacity of the body to fight against common infections and some chronic diseases that are linked to the improper functioning of the immune system, such as lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, or fibromyalgia;

- It has anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory functions;

- It ensures timely wound healing;

- It helps maintain the sense of taste and smell;

- It provides the support for DNA synthesis;

- It's important for maintaining a healthy skin.

Zinc deficiency would normally occur for the following reasons:

- Its intake has been insufficient;

- It is inadequately absorbed;

- There has been an increased depletion of zinc from the body;

- There is an increased need for the zinc.

Nicotine-addicts usually have the risk of depletion/deficiency of important nutrients and minerals including zinc.

Some of the signs of zinc deficiency include - diarrhea, hair loss, delayed healing of wounds, loss of appetite, taste abnormalities, weight loss and mental lethargy.

Some food sources of zinc are oysters, ginger root, lamb, pecans, green peas, shrimp, whole wheat, rye and almonds.

As with any other mineral, excess of zinc can be harmful to the body. Hair Mineral Analysis as well as Symtomatology analysis can help determine vitamins and minerals imbalances in the body.

Lianna Aghabekyan (Lynn Alex) is a Certified Nutritional Consultant, Weight-Loss and Anti-Aging Consultant, Yoga Teacher and Life-Skills Coach. Check out her coaching programs to reach your nutrition and weight loss goals and realize your full potential. Subscribe to the e-zine "Be Empowered" and receive a free report. Visit the websites http://www.nutrifitpower.com and http://www.pathstopower.net for more details.

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Prevent Acne Scars With Zinc Supplements

2008-08-22T02:40:00.001-07:00

Zinc is often a neglected vitamin, which is fine if your not having repetitive skin damage causing pitting and scarring. Zinc prevents acne scars and is vital in two aspects relating to your overall health and well being. Firstly, one of the most well known benefits of zinc is its beneficial involvement in tissue repair. This is the most important reason for an acne suffer to take zinc as the potential damage caused by acne scarring and pitting are quite difficult to reverse but very easy to prevent. Through taking zinc, your pimples caused by acne will heal at a faster rate thus preventing scar tissue from forming the characteristic acne pitting. It is crucial that you take zinc as soon as possible as it will have immediate positive effects in preventing scarring.

The second benefit of zinc is its anti-microbial properties especially in relation to the gastro-intestinal tract. For further information on the cause of acne by the gastro-intestinal tract read my short article here. Below is an excellent summary of the role of zinc with the immune system as stated by

Wikipedia:

“Zinc salts are effective against pathogens in direct application. Gastrointestinal infections are also strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the GI tract, or to absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc) or both.

The direct effect of zinc (as in lozenges) on bacteria and viruses is also well-established, and has been used since at least 2000 BC, from when zinc salts in palliative salves are documented. However, exactly how to deliver zinc salts against pathogens without injuring one’s own tissues is still being investigated.” It is highly recommended that you begin taking at least 50mg (no more than 100mg) per day of zinc to prevent acne scarring before it occurs irreversibly. You can purchase it at your local pharmacy. Wherever you purchase it, save yourself the grief of scarring and begin taking the inexpensive acne scarring treatment zinc supplements as soon as possible.

David is a veterinary student who suffered from acne as a teenager and became very annoyed at trying to find legitamate acne information on the internet. He now is an acne researcher and writes articles grounded in medical journals and clinical studies in an effort to provide quality information and guidance. David is also developing honest and friendly acne forums and user product reviews for community members to share their experience.

David's website can be found here: http://www.mrclear-acne-reviews.com

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Santa Catalina Announces Commencement Of Drill Program On Dsa Project

2008-02-15T04:23:00.001-08:00

VANCOUVER, BC--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Aug. 17, 1995--SANTA CATALINA MINING(VSE: SLM ) SANTA CATALINA MINING CORP. (the "Company") announces that it has been informed by the site geologist that the first hole has been spudded on the DSA Project located in Warm Springs and Alta Mining Districts, Blaine and Custer County, Idaho.

The four hole drill program is designed to test a massive sulfide target. These types of deposits typically range in size from 25 to 170 million tons of 10% to 22% combined lead-zinc and 1 to 6 ounces per ton of silver.

Nine years of work, including 2,847 soil samples and 14,765 feet of diamond drilling in 27 holes have led to the target which the Company is beginning to test today.geological environment is similar to the Red Dog mine, Alaska, and Sullivan mine, British Columbia.

Record-breaking BAT electric vehicle to be showcased at museum

2008-02-15T04:21:00.000-08:00

LOS ANGELES--(BUSINESS WIRE)--June 24, 1997--On June 17, 1997, a new long-range distance record was set by an electric automobile that traveled 1,043 miles on a single charge.

The vehicle was built by BAT International (OTC:BAAT) utilizing Kummerow zinc air batteries. Because of the strong interest in electric vehicles, the news spread quickly worldwide. Several TV channels picked up the news, including CNN, which aired the segment more than 10 times, and CNN International. Newspapers, magazines and other media also picked up the story, including many Web sites on the Internet. The popular "Yahoo" Internet site posted all of BAT International's recent news releases. Hundreds of calls have come in asking for more information about the vehicle. As a result, BAT has decided to showcase the vehicle to the public at the Marconi Automotive Museum in Orange County, Calif. (714/258-3001).

There are more than 50 famous cars on display at the museum, including the $3 million 195S Ferrari which Enzo Ferrari built for himself.

The vehicle will go on show at the Marconi Museum on June 27, 1997, located in Tustin-Orange County, Calif., and will be there for one month until July 27, 1997, when it will go on tour. The museum will be open Thursday-Friday, 3-5 p.m., closed weekends; for Monday-Thursday hours, call the museum. Most of the phone calls received by BAT International and Kummerow wanted additional technical information about the automobile and whether it could be viewed by the public. As mentioned in previous news releases, the record-breaking car was designed specifically for the Asian inter-city market. While it has the wheel base (length) of the Saturn, it was also constructed with a narrow width so that it could easily be maneuvered in narrow Asian streets.

Asian vehicles require a very strong frame construction due to the roughness of their streets and the fact that Asians tend to overload their vehicles. The electric vehicle has a payload of 1,600 pounds, which is approximately 600 pounds higher than payload of an average American five-door sedan. It can be built with a variety of body styles, from an open Asian taxi to a closed delivery van.

The construction is simple and is designed for low-speed travel, which is typical in Asian cities. The top speed in most Asian cities is 35 mph, with average traveling in the 20-25 mph range. These types of vehicles are becoming popular also in the United States; for example, Palm Springs, Calif., now has separate regulations for vehicles that travel under 25 mph on city streets.

These vehicles do not have to be crash-tested and come under different regulatory rules, which makes them easier and less expensive to build. Although this vehicle was designed for the Asian market, it may eventually find its way into communities like Palm Springs.

Diet and the elderly; research points to some special needs - part 2

2008-02-14T02:28:00.000-08:00

A growing amount of research into the way elderly men and women eat and live is expected to produce new recommendations on the specific nutrient needs of this rapidly growing segment of the American population. Some studies now under way suggest that the elderly have special dietary requirements and that some of them may need more of certain nutrients than they did when younger.

The data are indicating that many elderly Americans, especially women, don't get enough calcium and that some older citizens may have other deficiencies in their day-to-day In one study conducted under a grant from the National Institute on Aging, separate panels of scientists analyzed the information available for six essential nutrients--calcium, vitamin D, iron, folate, thiamine and zinc. The panelists looked at the consumption of the nutrients by the elderly, the dietary requirements of the elderly (as far as they are known), and any known association of inadequate intake with specific diseases. In reporting their findings, however, the panelists stressed that it was difficult to evaluate the nutritional status of elderly people because information about specific needs was lacking.

"Few studies of nutrient requirements have been done on the very old," they reported. "There also is a great need for more effective techniques to detect deficiencies in the elderly." The panels--whose findings were published in a November 1982 supplement issue of The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition--concluded that calcium deficiences are prevalent among many older Americans but that consumption of four other nutrients--folate, thiamine, vitamin D and iron--appeared to be generaly adequate. The panelists also said that consumption of zinc may be less than desirable but that data supporting such as "impression" is too limited to permit a firmer conclusion.

Many researchers believe that a deficiency of dietary calcium is a factor in osteoporosis, a disease that leaves the bones brittle and the individual prone to fractures, a common injury among the elderly. "See "Please Pass That Woman Some More Calcium And Iron" in the September 1984 FDA Consumer.) Of primary concern are women, whose calcium intake is usually less than that of men. Far more elderly women than men suffer from osteoporosis. Generally, bone strenght increases until about the age of 30 to 35. Thereafter, if begins to decline until menopause. Then, following menopause, the amount of bone loss in women tends to accelerate during the next three to seven years, possibly as a result of decreased estrogen levels associated with post-menopause. The panel further noted that as people get older--especially women--they tend to consume fewer calcium-rich foods, such as milk, cheese and other dairy products. The situation is further aggravated, the panelists noted, by reduced physical activity as a person ages. Bone renewal is aided by exercise. Women may face a greater risk from osteoporosis in later life because their bone mass is generally less than that of men to begin with.

The panel concluded that women of all ages need to consume more calcium, and they stressed that it is important for women to develop the habit of eating plenty of calcium-rich foods when young and to continue doing so throughout life.

Vitamin D is needed along with calcium to maintain healthy bones. It can be obtained by exposure to sunlight and by consuming foods fortified with vitamin D, by eating foods in which vitamin D is naturally present (liver, eggs and saltwater fish), and by taking dietary supplements. Absorption of vitamin D declines with age and many older people are less exposed to the sun, the report noted. However, the panel of scientists investigating this nutrient reported that most elderly people in the United States have adequate vitamin D levels, which is related to many foods being fortified with the nutrient as well as to the use of vitamin supplements in this country. Deficiencies, however, may occur among those who are ill, those confined to institutions, those who are heavy alcohol and drug users, and those whose food budgets are limited by small incomes (factors that could lead to deficiencies of other nutrients as well).

Iron, which plays a vital role in transporting oxygen to body cells and in the cells' utilization of oxygen, is generally adequate in the diets of most elderly people, another panel concluded. Inadequate dietary iron can lead to iron deficiency anemia. The body's need for iron is not believed to be any greater in the elderly than in younger adult males, and lower than those for children and menstruating women. The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences noted in its 1980 report that of all the trace minerals, deficiency of dietary iron probably is the one that poses the greatest nutritional concern, particularly for infants, and children, pregnant women and women of child-bearing age, and older people with low food intakes.

Glades Pharmaceuticals debuts generic gel alternatives

2008-02-14T02:27:00.000-08:00

Glades Pharmaceuticals Inc. announces its newest generic products available by prescription: Benzoyl Peroxide 6 percent and 10 percent gels.

Glades Benzoyl Peroxide 6 percent and 10 percent gels are generic alternatives to Triaz(r) 6 percent and 10 percent gels, and are available in 1.5-ounce tubes.

Glades gels are formulated to topically treat acne with the active ingredient benzoyl peroxide. Like the brand, Glades Benzoyl Peroxide Gels also contain glycolic acid and a zinc salt.

Glades Pharmaceuticals is a subsidiary of Stiefel Laboratories Inc., a company dedicated to dermatology since 1847. Glades markets a line of single-source generic dermatological products.

Best Hair Loss Products

2008-02-02T02:08:00.000-08:00

There are many hair loss products available in the market and the best treatment for an individual depends on the cause of the hair loss. If you use the correct medication for the type of hair loss you are experiencing then you will experience positive results.

Products like minoxidil work by blocking dehydrotestosterone (DHT) which is the leading cause of hair loss. Minoxidil is proven most effective for this condition but if you use it for other types of hair loss then it is not effective. There are also different concentrations of minoxidil and the lower solutions do not need prescriptions. You need to consult with a doctor to know the minoxidil concentration that your condition requires. Higher concentrated solutions require prescriptions. Other DHT blockers in the market are zinc oxide, Crinagen and Bayberry.

For other types of hair loss, there are other medications that can be used. Hair loss due to hormonal balance for example, can be cured by hormone replacement therapy. Patients can take estrogen pills or anti-androgen pills. These pills may stop and reverse the hair loss in menopausal women.

Many hair loss supplements contain several active ingredients that stop hair loss and provide nourishment to the hair follicles. The creams may contain zinc, vitamin B6, Saw Palmetto, Calcium and other nutrients. Hair loss due to inflammation as a result of dermatitis and other medical conditions are treated with anti-inflammatory medications such as solutions with licorice extract, or tea tree oil. These medications maintain the healthy condition of the scalp.

Patients must remember that there are no overnight solutions to hair loss problems. All the medications require patience as it takes at least three to six months before significant improvements become noticeable. Also, these medications require continued use. Hair loss recurs after you stop using the medication medication

Night Blindness And Vitamin A

2008-02-02T02:06:00.000-08:00

Night blindness, also known as nyctalopia, is the inability to acclimatize to dim lighting conditions. Some people become more nearsighted at night as the pupil dilates in dark conditions, a condition called spherical aberration. When a person is unable to see well enough to distinguish distinct images in low lighting conditions, night blindness results.

People with night blindness (also called impaired dark adaptation) have poor vision in the darkness, but see normally when adequate light is present.

Night blindness is mostly a symptom of several underlying diseases or conditions, especially untreated nearsightedness.

This occurs because an individual with myopia will become even more nearsighted as the pupil dilates at night. On the other hand, patients being treated with glaucoma medications, which constrict the pupil, will also frequently have night blindness, because the small pupil allows minimal light to enter the eye. Retinitis pigmentosa, a retinal degenerative disorder, may also be associated with night blindness. Some other less common causes of night blindness include the retinal disorders such as gyrate atrophy.

Types of night blindness -

• Congenital stationary night blindness - This type of night blindness, present at birth, is mostly due to inherited disorders.

• Progressive night blindness – This type of night blindness continues to gradually worsen over time.

Causes can include a myriad of factors such as retinol or vitamin A deficiency, any disease, and toxic effects of drugs like quinine.

• Night Blindness due to complication of obesity related surgery - Individuals who undergo obesity surgery can develop night blindness, mainly because important nutrients such as vitamin A may be lacking if patients fail in the intake of nutritional supplements following surgery.

What are the causes of Night Blindness?

Night blindness is caused due to a disorder of the cells in the retina of the eye, which are responsible for vision in dim light. This may be caused due to:

• Nearsightedness.

• Glaucoma medications that work by constricting the pupil.

• Presence of cataracts.

• Retinitis pigmentosa - a retinal degenerative disorder

• Vitamin A deficiency

• Malabsorption - if it affects vitamin A absorption

• Celiac disease

• Cystic fibrosis

• Bile duct obstruction

• Diabetes

• Macular degeneration

• Birth defect

What are the symptoms of night blindness?

Common symptoms include difficulty in vision when driving in the evening or at night, poor vision in reduced light, and feeling that the eyes take longer to "adjust" to seeing in the dark.

Associated symptoms include:

# Dry eyes

# Blurred vision

How is Night Blindness treated?

Treatment for night blindness will depend upon its cause. Treatment may be quite simple as a new prescription eyeglasses or changing glaucoma medications, or it may be complex requiring surgery in cases of cataracts.

If night blindness is caused by nearsightedness, the patient may need to wear glasses at night. Night blindness if caused by a loss of some of the function of the rods, then a visual field examination is performed. Tests would need to be performed to determine whether the receptor cells in the retina are functioning properly, or if the problem is somewhere else. But most times there's nothing that can be done if these cells are damaged.

If a doctor determines that there is simply a need for vitamin A to help the night blindness, then that would be recommended. For those patients who have retinitis pigmentosa, vitamin A is being used to help.

Thus, treatments for night blindness include:

# Vitamin A supplements

# Treatment of any underlying cause

Vitamins that may be helpful in case of night blindness -

Night blindness may be an early sign of Vitamin A deficiency. Such a deficiency may result due to a diet low in animal foods, such as eggs, dairy products, meat and fish. Low intake of fruits and vegetables containing beta-carotene, such as carrots, mango, spinach, sweet potato, which the body converts into vitamin A, may also contribute to a vitamin A deficiency. Doctors often recommend Vitamin A dietary supplements per day to correct a deficiency. Beta-carotene is less successful at correcting vitamin A deficiency than vitamin A itself, because it is not relatively well-absorbed into the body, and is only slowly converted by the body into vitamin A.

Zinc deficiency in diet is common, and a lack of zinc may reduce the activity of retinol dehydrogenase - the enzyme needed to help vitamin A work in the eye. Zinc is helpful in people whose night blindness is caused due to zinc-deficiency; therefore, many doctors suggest 15 to 30 mg of zinc per day to support healthy vision. As long-term zinc supplementation may reduce copper levels in the body, 1 to 2 mg of copper per day is also recommended for people who are on zinc supplements for more than a few weeks

Hair Loss Linked to Diet?

2008-02-01T02:04:00.000-08:00

A diet high in fat and salt has been linked to hair loss. These high fat/salt diets have been known to cause damage to the kidneys and create increased levels of acid within the blood stream that inevitably leads to an increase in hair loss. A wholesome diet, rich in silica, calcium and iron can help reduce and/or prevent hair loss. Maintaining a diet low in fat, salt, and sugar is also highly recommended.

In a society with last minute meals many individuals also have diets that are low in vitamin rich foods. This deficiency will also increase your chances of hair loss.

For women, thinning hair or hair loss can be a sign of a problem within the gastrointestinal tract. Many times gastrointestinal problems are caused by an insufficient supply of proper stomach acids. A deficiency of protein, zinc, and other nutrients have been linked to this imbalance.

For men, the balding process can be prevented or slowed by decreasing the fat within their diets. A high fat diet raises testosterone levels, and that adversely affects hair follicles. Eating low-fat diets may not prevent hair loss but it will assist in slowing the process.

What should we eat?

* A balanced diet of lean protein, soy, and complex carbohydrates found in fruits and vegetables is highly recommended.

* Monounsaturated fats also play a very important role in hair growth and revitalization, these fats are found in extra virgin olive oil and nuts; very different from that of fat in fast foods.

* Increase green, leafy vegetables as they are a good source of minerals.

* Increase raw oats to provide a silica rich diet.

* Avoid large portions of carbohydrates such as potatoes and pastas as they turn to glucose during digestion and elevate the body's blood sugar level.

* Keep alcohol limited to no more then one drink per day. Alcohol decreases the body's levels of zinc, folic acid, vitamin B, and vitamin C leading to a vitamin deficiency. Alcohol also contains high sugar contents and calories.

* Keep caffeinated drinks to a minimum as well. Caffeine depletes the body of vitamins B and C, potassium and zinc; this causes a vitamin deficiency that puts stress on the adrenal glands increasing the level of DHT within the body. Increased levels of DHT have been linked to cause a majority of issues with hair loss.

Treating the Common Cold: A look at Alternative Medicine and Common Cold Treatment

2008-02-01T02:02:00.000-08:00

Scientists and researchers continue to evaluate different methods of treating the common cold. There are thousands of published studies concerning alternative medicine and common cold prevention. More studies are published almost daily. One of the obstacles that researchers face is the fact that some people can be infected with a common cold virus and never have symptoms, some recover quickly without treatment and others have symptoms for as long as two weeks. The reason or reasons for these differences among people can not be fully explained.

The average person has two or more colds per year. Children, typically have more. The cold is a leading reason for school absences and doctor visits. There are no effective prescription medications for treating the common cold. Antibiotics neither prevent nor kill viral infections. Although a cold is not a serious medical condition, it can cause lost days at work and school and can lead to bacterial infections of the sinuses, throat and respiratory system, so many researchers feel that studying the effects of vitamins, alternative medicine and common cold home remedies is a worthwhile effort.

Treating the common cold with zinc nasal sprays or gels has been the subject of several studies and is somewhat controversial. Some scientists and researchers believe that applying zinc directly to nasal membranes can lead to a permanent loss of the sense of smell. In fact, one group of people sued a company, because they lost their sense of smell after using a zinc nasal spray. Zinc lozenges are also available and are not believed to have the side effects associated with the nasal spray, but they are only effective in reducing the duration of cold symptoms in about 50% of the people who use them.

There have been numerous studies about vitamin C as an alternative medicine and common cold remedy. Some of these studies conclude that vitamin C can reduce the duration and severity of common cold symptoms. Others show that it is an effective preventative. Still others conclude that vitamin C is not effective for treating common cold symptoms or for preventing them.

One study in Helsinki, Finland reported a 28% reduction in common cold frequency with vitamin E supplementation, but a follow-up study did not support the initial results. Vitamin E seems to prevent colds in some people, but is not effective for treating the common cold. These types of studies do not take into consideration the fact that some people do not seem to catch colds as easily as others. So results are not reliable.

Even acupuncture has been studied as an alternative medicine and common cold remedy. Some researchers believe that acupuncture can be a reliable fever reducer. Echinacea is often recommended by herbalists as alternative medicine and common cold treatment. However, some researchers believe that Echinacea can be toxic to the liver when used for extended periods of time and so, should not be used as a preventative.

Acne Treatment, Remedy, and Natural Skin Care Solutions

2008-01-31T03:17:00.000-08:00

Nobody wants to be embarrassed because of acne invasions on their face. There are safe and natural treatments for addressing acne and other skin disorders as well as prescription medications. The main problem with prescription medicated acne solutions is that often they cause severe side effects such as birth defect.

There are safe and natural ingredients that help fight acne effectively and cheaply. Look for these ingredients in your next acne-fighting product before ordering. Below I have listed some of these ingredients.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A contributes to the strengthening of your skin’s protective tissue; it prevents acne. In addition, vitamin A assists to cut down on sebum creation in your body. If that was not all, vitamin A also proves quite effective for removing toxins from your body. Not consuming enough vitamin A in your daily diet may be a central cause for getting acne.

Vitamin B1

Vitamin B1 is great for providing energy production, better digestion, metabolism, and overall balance in your body. Since imbalances in your body can cause acne, vitamin B can help restore balance.

Vitamin B2

Vitamin B2 is extremely essential for healthy-looking skin, hair, and even nails. Acne is often a symptom of vitamin B2 deficiency. A safe recommended dosage of vitamin B2 in order to fight acne: 100mg, 3 times daily.

Vitamin B3

Vitamin B3 is very important for healthy skin through the improvement of circulation and the ongoing support of your body with the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. A deficiency in vitamin B3 will cause acne. A safe recommended dosage to effectively combat acne: 200mg, three times daily.

Vitamin B5

Vitamin B5 has become popular for decreasing stress levels which in turn help to minimize the break outs of acne. A safe recommended dosage to take: 100mg, three times daily.

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 is a vital for the proper functioning of the immune system and the antibody production. A deficiency in this vitamin may result in acne.

Chromium

Chromium helps to diminish skin infections. In order to get enough chromium in your diet, it ought to be consumed in either two forms: chromium polynicotinate, or chromium picolinate.

Zinc

Zinc helps stop scarring and supports the healing process of tissues. Zinc aids in the prevention of acne by the regulation of oil gland activities. Those who get acne may be deficient in zinc.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E helps improve the healing process and tissue repair. In addition, it stops cell damage by holding back the formation of free radicals and the oxidation of lipids. A safe recommended dosage to take for combating acne: 400 IU, once daily.

To read reviews on effective acne-fighting products that contain the above ingredients and more, visit the links below

Dealing With Low Testosterone Levels

2008-01-31T03:16:00.000-08:00

When it comes to hormones, testosterone is one of the leading hormones in men. Considered part of the androgen family, testosterone is the cause of a man’s development. This includes all of the masculine characteristics then men have such as facial hair, deep voices, larger muscles, and sperm. Testosterone is also responsible for all of the male sex organs, as well as the appearance of sex characteristics like heavier bone structure, coarse skin, and broader shoulders. Quite simply, testosterone is what makes a man a man.

Testosterone is secreted both in the testes as well as the adrenal glands. If for any reason the testosterone level in a man’s body isn’t functioning well or has lower levels that what is needed, it can change a man’s body in ways that they aren’t comfortable with. Many older males have a deficiency in testosterone levels just based on age. As you get older your body naturally stops making as much testosterone making you feel weaker and can even cause erectile dysfunction. While this can be a temporary issue, for many men as they age it requires medical attention and possible prescription drugs to help keep the testosterone level up and working efficiently.

You might be able to tell if you have a deficiency in testosterone through various things that happen with your body. You could gain weight, develop anxiety or depression, have more fatigue then you used to, or it could show only in the control and length of your erections during sex. That is why men frequently test their testosterone levels when they are over the age of 35.

Besides medication prescribed by your doctor you can try other systems that have a more natural way of increasing testosterone with all-natural pills that are rich in Zinc which is very helpful in stimulating the production of testosterone. Zinc is used constantly by the male reproduction system, and if you have low levels of Zinc, it can really hinder your performance. These natural pills do not have any side effects and are considered safe to take for low testosterone levels.

Dog Treats:Natural and Healthy: Why Chicken?

2008-01-30T01:26:00.001-08:00

Many dog lovers are turning to chicken as a natural healthy treat for their dogs. Chicken is very beneficial for your dogs' health.

Healthy Benefits of Chicken
Chicken makes an especially great treat for dogs because it is:

All Natural

LOW in Calories

LOW in Fat

LOW in Cholesterol

HIGH in Protein

Low in fat, calories, and cholesterol
Chicken provides the complete protein dogs require daily. Of all the meats, chicken is one of the lowest in calories, fat and saturated fat.

Chicken Breast has very low cholesterol at around 62mg/100g

Premium Protein
Dogs require protein, and because protein can't be stored in their body, they need a new supply every day. Chicken is an ideal source of protein because it is lower in calories, fats and saturated fats than most other meats.

Nutrition
Chicken is extremely dense in nutrients, including protein, zinc, iron, phosphorous, riboflavin, thiamin and niacin.

Chicken contains significant quantities of many minerals, including iron, zinc, magnesium and phosphorous.

There are many chicken jerky treats on the market, but they are not all the same. It is critical that the chicken treats you choose be all natural. It is of prime importance that your dog gets a treat without additives, preservatives, or coloring. Your best bet is to read the ingredients label. If there is something listed that is hard to pronounce, choose a different product! Once your dog tastes the all-natural goodness of a healthy treat, he will surely show you his preference next time you go for the bag.

The Best Acne Prevention Diet

2008-01-30T01:24:00.000-08:00

A widespread myth that has circulated for years is that if you eat fatty foods, you'll develop acne. This is only partly true -- scientists have proven that these foods are not the direct cause of acne, but they will promote blemishes and unhealthy skin, which may eventually lead to acne. It is important to remember that what you eat will reflect on the healthiness of your skin, so planning a diet to prevent acne is essential.

Eat foods containing zinc

Zinc is a fantastic antioxidant that will improve your body's overall health and immune system, ultimately resulting in healthier skin. It can be found in whole grains, nuts and eggs -- it is recommended that you eat these foods as often as possible.

Keep your nutrient levels high

Maintaining a high nutrient and vitamin level is essential for your acne prevention diet. There are a number of nutrients found in foods that will improve the skin's appearance and fight off any developing acne. These include:

* Vitamin A - Carrots, apricots and tomatoes

* Vitamin B-2 - Fish, meat and eggs

* Vitamin B-3 - Avocados, lean meats and peanuts

* Vitamin E - Broccoli, vegetable oil and almonds

Keep a log of your skin's activity

Remember that some foods may have varying effects on different people, so you should consider keeping a log of what foods caused blemishes and what didn't. Also, you should record whenever you see improvement in your skin's health. Keeping a log is extremely beneficial and will help you build a proper acne prevention diet.

Acne Treatment, Remedy, and Natural Skin Care Solutions

2008-01-05T04:37:00.000-08:00

Dealing With Low Testosterone Levels

2008-01-05T04:35:00.000-08:00

The Health Benefits of Zinc

2007-12-19T23:02:00.000-08:00

Zinc is a mineral found in almost every cell and is an essential nutrient for the body. Zinc is available in various food sources and is also made available as supplements (as single-ingredient or multi-vitamins).

1. Benefits of zinc

Zinc promotes biochemical reactions in the body by stimulating activity in about 100 enzymes. Zinc is essential for a healthy immune system, aids in wound healing, helps maintain the sense of smell and taste, supports normal growth and development, and is essential for DNA synthesis. In the form of zinc salts, it helps fight against pathogens when directly applied.

The ingestion of zinc salts also help in gastrointestinal infections, providing antimicrobial action in the GI tract. Zinc salts are also used as lozenges, to help kill bacteria and viruses. It should be noted however, that the administration of zinc to fight against pathogens without damaging tissues, is still being studied.

2. Food sources of zinc

Oysters are found to be rich in zinc. Other food sources that contain zinc, albeit a lesser degree, include sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, nuts, whole grains, beans, and most animal proteins. Phytates, a compound found in legumes, cereals, and grain breads, may decrease the absorption of zinc.

3. Recommended dosage

According to the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), the recommended dosage of zinc for healthy individuals varies across age groups. For infants from 0 through 6 months, 2.0 mg of zinc per day is recommended. The recommended dosage for zinc is 3 mg per day for those 7 months to 3 years, 5mg for those 4 to 8 years, and 8 mg for those 9 to 13 years.

Those 14 and above are advised to take 11 mg of zinc for males, and 9 mg for females. Higher dosages may be needed for pregnant and lactating women. The RDA suggests 13 mg of zinc for women who are pregnant at age 14 to 18 years, and 11 mg for those pregnant at age 19 years and up. About 14 mg is the dosage recommended for lactating women at age 14 to 18, and 12 mg for lactating women at age 19 and up.

3. Zinc deficiency

Zinc deficiency may result to skin lesions, hair loss, diarrhea, poor taste, smell, and eyesight, malfunction of said organs, wasting of body tissues, and, even death. Congenital abnormalities may also lead to Acrodermatitis enteropathica.

The Many Benefits of Zinc Supplements

2007-12-19T23:01:00.000-08:00

Getting enough zinc can wonders in numerous health conditions. Zinc activates white blood cells to fight infections. It helps protect the body against viruses. Men need zinc for sperm production and to keep the prostate gland healthy. Zinc helps the pancreas make insulin and keep normal sugar levels.

Zinc is essential for good memory. Zinc supplements even help teenagers get better grades in school.

How important is zinc? Zinc is present in every cell in the body. It is a component of over 200 enzymes. There are high amounts of zinc in red blood cells, white blood cells, your bones, kidneys, liver, pancreas, and retina. Men have high concentrations of zinc in the prostate gland. Every cell in the body needs zinc to divide and replace itself when the body makes new tissues.

Here are two lists. One is a list of conditions that can occur when the body does not get enough zinc. The second is a list of conditions that improve due to the benefits of zinc supplements.

Not getting enough zinc can chronic fatigue, dermatitis, diarrhea, hypothyroidism, female infertility, impaired platelet aggregation, insulin resistance, and loss of taste or smell. It can cause reduced resistance to infection, night blindness, poor appetite, poor memory, attention deficit disorder, and reduced learning ability, and it can cause slower growth in children, slow healing of wounds, and infertility in men. Add to this list Acrodermatitis enteropathica, Alopecia, atrophy of the testes, bone loss and osteoporosis, decreased sperm count, decreased sperm motility, delayed puberty, nerve cell problems in Alzheimer’s disease and Down’s syndrome, and ringing in the ears.

Among the benefits of zinc supplement is improved immune function. Other benefits of zinc supplements are adding calcium to bones and teeth, lowering blood sugars, helping interferon work in treating hepatitis C, clearing up bacterial prostatitis, and recharging the male sex drive. They can help recovery in brain injury, improve brain function, restore night vision, increase sperm count, and stimulate the libido.

Extra zinc can help bring out weight gain in anorexia nervosa and help children with sickle cell disease. It can even cure bad breath.

Who needs the benefits of zinc supplements? You might be surprised. The United Nations University found that 20% of people worldwide are deficient in zinc. Zinc in supplements is needed to prevent childhood infections and diarrhea and to support normal growth and development.

Think you’re safe if you eat a good diet? Think again. Scores of modern medications deplete the body’s stores of zinc. Any women who takes the Pill or hormone replacement therapy or medication to prevent osteoporosis is at risk for nutritional deficiency and may need zinc supplements. Heart patients, diabetics, and epileptics also need zinc supplements.

Even some supplements increase the body’s need for zinc. Calcium supplements, magnesium supplements, and whey all can interfere with the absorption of zinc. Never take zinc at the same time you take these supplements, and always be sure you are getting enough of the benefits of zinc supplements if you take any supplements for bone health or muscle health.

What about side effects of zinc supplements?

If you take too much zinc, your body will have difficulty absorbing copper. It’s OK to take up to 20 mg every 2 hours for as long as 2 weeks to fight a cold, but for everyday nutrition limit your intake to 15 mg a day. Zinc supplements can cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, but only if you take about a gram—over 60 times the recommended dose.

How can you tell if you are taking too much zinc?

Here is a simple test. Overdoses of zinc numb your taste buds to bitter flavor and metallic aftertastes. Zinc has a metallic taste. If you can’t taste zinc, you don’t need to take it! The benefits of zinc supplements are yours with just a small, regular dose.

Zinc Benefits, Dosage, Deficiency, Sources

2007-12-19T23:00:00.000-08:00

It was studied by Keilin and Mann that zinc is essential for the activity of some enzymes. It is a component of vital enzyme carbonic anhydrase, and other enzymes like several dehydrogenises (alcohol, glutamics, and certain pyridine nucleotide) and pancreatic carboxypeptidase’s. It is found in traces in all tissues, except the bones, teeth, and pancreas which have slightly more amount of zinc. A normal adult contains 1.4-2.5 gm of zinc. Zinc level for adults in plasma or serum is 0.1/100 ml, and in whole blood it is 0.7mg/100 ml. The need for zinc is small but its role in growth and well being is great.

It exists in the body mostly in combination with other constituents. It is bluish-white, metallic element. It is excreted mainly in urine. A study results said that rheumatoid arthritis can be taken care of by a diet rich in vitamin E, zinc, and beta carotene.

Recommended Daily Allowance: The RDA of 3 mg for infants, 10 mg for children, and 10-15 mg for adults is suggested. Most human diet provides these requirements. Growing children, pregnant and lactating women need more.

The zinc is administered on medical reasons for rapid healing of skin ulcers, acne, eczema, wounds, and prostate disorders.

Too much of zinc can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, and damage to the kidneys. 50-75 mg a day can backfire or lower HDL (good) cholesterol. Too much of zinc can cause loss of iron and copper in the body.

Dietary Sources: Whole wheat, breakfast cereals, nuts, legumes, animal food, like crabs, sardines, oysters, lean meat, eggs, cheese, and fish are good sources of zinc. The bioavailability of zinc in vegetables foods is low whereas animal foods are dependable sources.

Intensive cultivation over hundreds of years has caused depletion of zinc in soil, and thereby in the food crops grown in the area.

Functions of the Body: Zinc is an integral and essential element of insulin molecule. Zinc easily forms a compound with Insulin, and thus prolongs insulin action. As pancreas is rich in zinc, it helps storage of insulin in the pancreas.

Zinc promotes growth and sexual maturity, improves immune system and hastens healing of wounds, and helps digestion of protein. It is an ideal remedy for fatigue. It is needed to transport Vitamin A to the retina.

Deficiency Sources: The negative zinc balance could be due to low protein diet, pregnancy, refined foods, intestinal diseases, chronic alcoholism, diabetes, chronic fever, and haemodialysis. The deficiency of zinc can cause loss of appetite and taste, alopecia, skin lesions, reduced growth, and dysfunction of reproductive system. A syndrome of growth failure (dwarfism), hypogonadism, anemia, delayed genital maturation and hepatomegaly due to zinc deficiency has been found. Acute zinc efficiency results in mental apathy, diarrhoea, moist eczema, and dermatitis especially around the mouth. In advanced age, deficiency of zinc is more prominent but, in young age, there can be slow hair growth and decrease in blood corpuscles. Its deficiency adversely effect utilization of iron, and copper. More on Zinc- Benefits, Dosage, Deficiency, Sources

New flexible control system from engineering concepts unlimited

2007-07-25T00:15:00.000-07:00

Engineering Concepts Unlimited (ECU) recently launched a new engine control unit for engine generator set and pump set control. While targeted primarily toward the smaller end of market, the new 9960 Series control has enough flexibility and capability to be suitable for application in ECU'S more traditional larger engine installations, according to Adam Suchko, president of the Fishers, Ind., manufacturer.

"These units can be configured for everything from ultra-simple to reasonably complicated applications," said Suchko. "It is really targeted at small sets and pumps, but it has just enough capability to eke onto a regular set. It's probably one of the most flexible controls we've ever offered."
The new 9960 Series control is a fully potted unit housed in an ECU standard (2.9 in. x 3.1 in. x 1 in.) zinc case. It can accommodate as many as three 40 amp relays and a total of 12 connections to monitor and control a range of engine conditions and functions. Faston connectors are used to provide high power and density and facilitate quick installation, Suchko noted.

Tables and chairs

2007-07-25T00:14:00.001-07:00

The Bistro series of heavy-duty tables and chairs is designed to look great and last for years. Chair frames are made of heavy-gauge steel tubing that is sealed with a zinc-coating process and finished with a rust-resistant powder. The seat and back are made from heavy-gauge steel that is perforated for ventilation and drainage. Tables are available with two frames: the hourglass frame with curved legs and the economy frame with straighter legs.

Antimicrobial activity of copper and zinc accumulated in eastern oyster amebocytes

2007-07-04T02:09:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT The distribution of eastern oysters Crassostrea virginica near terrestrial watersheds has led to a general impression that low or variable salinity is imperative for survival. However, freshwater runoff contains numerous mineral elements from geologic deposits that could play significant roles in oyster physiology. Two metals of terrestrial origin, copper and zinc, are accumulated to extremely high concentrations in eastern oysters, even in the absence of anthropogenic sources. As yet, there has been no defendable demonstration of a physiologic function for such high concentrations. Both copper and zinc, however, are accumulated almost exclusively in the amebocytes and calcareous shell of oysters, a unique distribution that implicates a role in the functions of amebocytes. Amebocytes are migratory, diapedetic cells generally recognized to provide nutriment and defense through phagocytosis, killing, and digestion of invading or ingested microorganisms. There is sufficient evidence in existing literature to suggest that copper and zinc directly contribute to these antimicrobial activities. This review presents historical and recent findings that demonstrate a strong affinity of oyster amebocytes for copper and zinc (even in low ambient concentrations), prolonged retention of the metals despite a potential route of elimination, and strong circumstantial evidence of antimicrobial activity by accumulated copper and zinc. It is proposed that oysters actively concentrate copper and zinc as antimicrobial agents to be used in intracellolar and extracellular killing (direct toxicity) as well as extracellular clot formation (precipitation of hemolymph). This potential, combined with evidence of amebocyte involvement in deposition of oyster shell, provides an alternative framework for understanding amebocyte functions, defense activities, and coastal distributions of oyster populations. It also affords some resolution to the apparent contradiction of eastern oysters thriving at seemingly polluted locations.

PURAC America, Inc

2007-06-19T02:17:00.001-07:00

PURAC is the world's largest and most experienced manufacturer of natural L(+)-lactic acid, lactates and a leading producer of gluconates. As acidulants, PURAC offers the food industry GLUCON[R] GDL, glucono-delta lactone and PURAC[R] lactic acid. PURAC also has a wide range of products in the form of sodium and potassium lactates to the Meat & Poultry industry as well as mineral lactates and gluconates to the Health & Nutrition market.

PURAC's product line:

* PURAC[R] lactic acid and GLUCON[R] GDL are acidulants suitable for shelf life stability and flavor enhancement of a variety of prepared foods. Improving the flavor of contemporary, traditional, and restricted diet formulations with a perfect pH.PURACAL[R], PURAMEX[R] and GLUCONAL[R]--high quality mineral lactates and gluconates designed to meet processing and product demands. PURACAL[R] is a range of natural calcium offering the food industry highly soluble calcium sources with a neutral flavor. Additional minerals include magnesium, zinc, ferrous, potassium, manganese and copper.

* PURASAL[R] Opti.Form[R] PURAC recently introduced a NEW Flavor Enhanced potassium lactate and diacetate blend. This blend controls Listeria and extends shelf life without a flavor impact in uncured meat and poultry products.

* PURASAL[R] Powder--a sodium lactate powder currently being used to extend shelf life, increase safety, preserve color, and enhance flavor. Also applicable in spice blends.

The battle against cold & flu bugs: the best defenses this season could be the most common-sense solutions

2007-06-19T02:16:00.001-07:00

DO you press the elevator button at work with your elbow? When using a public restroom, do you flush the toilet with your foot and use paper towels to open doors? You might be a germophobe. Or you could be one of the many smart people who are just trying to survive this year's cold/flu season without getting sick. The good news is that there are ways to ward off viruses, including a new anti-flu nasal mist. The bad news is that since the flu virus changes every year, there could be a meaner, more resistant strain of the virus lurking around. So, take note. Both colds and the flu, or influenza, are spread by different viruses that infect the respiratory system. There are many types of viruses and most are spread in the same way. For instance, if your co-worker has a cold and sneezes or coughs without covering his or her mouth, droplets from the cough or sneeze can spread through the air (up to 3 feet) and can be deposited on your keyboard or other surfaces.

After using your computer (some bacteria can live two hours or longer on surfaces), you may unknowingly infect yourself by touching your eyes, mouth or nose. Also, shaking hands with someone who has the flu or a cold is a form of direct contact, and before you know it, you could find yourself with watery eyes and a scratchy throat. This season a great deal of media has focused on avian or bird flu, which is an infection also caused by a virus. Although the virus originates in wild birds, it can spread to humans who are in contact with birds, or their droppings, and to domestic birds, such as chickens and turkeys. Doctors say that you cannot contract bird flu from eating poultry, even though about 100 people in Asia have been infected with the virus. "The disease is not spreading here," says Jennifer Morcone of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "But people should be informed."

Symptoms of bird flu mimic influenza and include fever, cough, sore throat and muscle aches. To this point, there have been no cases of bird flu in the United States, and researchers are in the process of developing a vaccine for the disease.

So how do you decrease the likelihood of contracting one of the many bugs lurking out there? Believe it or not, public rest-rooms are not the germiest places in the world. The shopping cart handle at the grocery store holds more bacteria than some public rest-rooms, according to The Germ Freak's Guide to Outwitting Colds and Flu by Allison Janse and Dr. Charles Gerba. Also, places that attract crowds, such as movie theaters, buses and subways (the railings and handles) are public breeding grounds for bacteria. Avoid these locations during a flu outbreak if you can.

In your home, replace sponges in the bathroom and kitchen regularly since they retain germs. In the office, you may want to skip the communal breakfast donuts--unless you get to them first. Another way to avoid colds and the flu is by choosing not to travel inside an airplane because your chances of catching a cold or the flu increase when you're inside.

According to the CDC, there are steps that you can take to stop the spread of germs that can cause the flu or common cold. Many of the things you were taught growing up, such as covering your mouth and nose when you sneeze or cough, apply here. Remember when your mother told you to always wash your hands? Health experts agree that washing your hands with soap and warm water for 15 to 20 seconds--that's as long as it takes to sing the "Happy Birthday" song twice--will dislodge those pesky germs you've picked up. Use alcohol-based wipes and/or gel sanitizers when soap and water are not available. However, always follow up with warm water and soap.

A new way to stop the flu is the Nasal-Spray Flu Vaccine or Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine (LAIV), a new flu vaccine that contains weakened live influenza viruses (rather than killed viruses). Researchers say that the nasal-spray flu vaccine is sprayed into the nose to stimulate the body's immune system and develop protective antibodies that will stop those flu viruses in their tracks. It is recommended for healthy people between the ages of 5 and 49 years old. The flu shot, which contains dead virus cells, is administered with a needle, usually in the arm. Doctors say that people who have a high risk for flu complications, such as individuals 65 or older, and adults and children with chronic heart or lung conditions, should get an annual flu shot. Although this year, there is talk about recommending a universal flu shot that could benefit everyone. For more information, go to http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/qa/flushot.htm.

According to Morcone at the CDC, it's also important to take good care of your body to ward off viruses. "We recommend eating well exercising, not smoking and getting plenty of rest." In fact, sleep deprivation is a major cause of metabolism breakdown, which can result in a weakened immune system. Smoking can break down the respiratory tract and make you more vulnerable to catching a virus. Doctors also suggest including zinc in your diet, available in over-the-counter lozenges and in some green teas, to further combat the spread of cold and flu.

oodbye ol' chap: with straight-from-the-earth ingredients and the right regimen, you're sure to revive winter-worn lips

2007-06-18T23:11:00.002-07:00

Who can turn the world on with her smile? No one with chapped lips, that's for sure--they make even the slightest change of expression painful. "Lips dry out easily since they lack a barrier of protective cells and have a thinner layer of skin than the rest of the body," explains Charles Zugerman, M.D., associate professor of clinical dermatology at Northwestern University. Also, since lips lack oil or sweat glands, they can't stay moist on their own and are vulnerable to chapping, cracking, and flaking. Here's how to give such lip woes the kiss off--quickly and naturally.

Just like everything else at this time of year, our lips appear paler than usual. "When the weather gets colder, blood flow to the lips constricts, making them look dull," says Zugerman. To add brightness, opt for super-hydrating glosses or lipsticks. "These formulas allow moisture to fill in the cracks, making lips smoother," declares Mel Rau, a New York City makeup artist. Tinted lip balms also do double duty. "Using lip color in the winter not only adds moisture, but its pigment shields the skin from the elements," says Rau.

Colors that condition: (1) L'Occitane Rose Bonbon Lips ($10; loccitane.com), offering both the shiny, smooth color of a gloss and the skin-soothing benefits of a balm; (2) Jurlique Natural Hydrating Lipstick ($25; jurlique.com), loaded with soothing ingredients like shea butter and calendula oil; (3) Pur Minerals Lip Plumping Gloss ($16.50; purminerals.com), made with natural minerals, and dye- and fragrance-free to prevent irritation; and (4) Almay Pure Tints Protective Lip Care SPF 25 ($4.95; at drugstores), with cucumber, chamomile, and green tea to calm redness.

Because enzymes from saliva break down the moisture barrier even more, avoid licking your lips; also, seal in moisture with products that are just for lips--those made for the body can cause irritation and stinging. Choose balms with an SPF of at least 15, since snow and ice can reflect more than 80 percent of the sun's damaging ultraviolet rays. "Sun damage, even in the winter," says Zugerman, "can cause the lips to dry out even more and become inflamed."

Balms to try: (1) Kiehl's Lip Balm SPF 15 ($7.50; kiehls.com), made with wheat germ oil; (2) Jason C My Lips SPF 15 ($8; jason-natural.com), with zinc to clear up cold sores fast; and (3) Clarins Moisture Replenishing Lip Balm ($22.50; clarins.com), chock-full of exfoliating vitamin A, along with shea and mango butters to restore suppleness.

The Marshall Protocol for Lyme disease and other chronic inflammatory conditions, Part Two: scientific background, data, and case histories

2007-06-18T23:11:00.001-07:00

All the conditions responding to the MP appear to have a similar causation by treatment-resistant cell wall deficient bacteria (CWDB) (see Sidebar). The protocol involves immune modulation, which consists of vitamin D reduction and higher than usual dosages of the angiotensin II receptor blocker, olmesartan (Benicar). These two components of the protocol enable the immune system to kill the CWDB weakened by the third component of the MP, namely, very low dosages of certain antibiotics. (1,3)

Early Results from Ongoing Phase Two Trial

Data

Preliminary results for chronic Lyme disease patients show that of the 51 patients who have been followed on the protocol study site for six to 22 months, 29 are reporting tangible improvement (Reenie Gentile, written communication, July 25, 2006). (3) Marshall (4) also finds significant improvement rates in various other chronic diseases (Table 1). These results probably underestimate the ultimate efficacy of the treatment, because many patients were still in fairly early stages of treatment and were still undergoing strong immunopathology responses to bacterial killing (a.k.a. Jarisch Herxheimer Reactions (1,3)).
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Brief Case Histories

The following are brief case histories. (For additional information, please visit http://autoimmunityresearch.org/transcripts/recovery_lax2006.pdf; also see Table 1 for patient improvement rates in other chronic diseases.)

Patient 1 is a 14-year-old boy who has been ill with chronic Lyme disease (with Rickettsial and Chlamydial coinfections) since June 2004. He suffered from chronic severe headaches, debilitating fatigue, a Tourette-like tic occurring every few minutes, blurred/double vision, photophobia, nausea, vertigo, insomnia, and visual tracking problems that prevented him from reading or writing. After 16 months on the MP, all his symptoms have greatly improved, and his tic and visual problems have completely disappeared. He is now able to resume most of his previous activities and continues to improve on the protocol.

Patient 2 is a 58-year-old woman who was diagnosed with Lyme disease in 1999. She had been treated with oral doxycycline in 1999 and 2001. She relapsed after beginning extra vitamin D supplements and increasing sun exposure. Many symptoms have greatly improved in the 29 months since she began the MP, including muscle pain, stiffness and weakness, fatigue, headaches, panic attacks, colitis attacks, nausea, bloating, indigestion, and insomnia. She reports that on the MP, her low back pain has gone from a level 8 to a level 1 on a ten-point scale (attributed to bulging discs at L4 and L5 on MRI), despite decreasing her use of pain medication.

Patient 3 is a 55-year-old female who was diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis ten years ago. She had previously been on high dose antibiotics (mostly oral, with some IV and IM) for six years prior to the MP and had minimal improvement. Her condition worsened while taking vitamin D prior to the MP (800 to 2400 IU daily over a two-year period). After 29 months on the MP, she reports reduced pain medication use, significantly greater strength and less pain in her hands and upper body, and less fatigue. Recently, her anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) tested negative, after having all 17 prior tests showing elevated levels (usually 1:640 or more).

Patient 4 is a 42-year-old man diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. His illness began after he became ill with infectious mononucleosis at the age of 22. Prior to beginning the MP, he could only work two or three days per week and had adverse consequences for days following exercise. He began the MP in March of 2005, and since then, he has had 90-100% resolution of his headaches, light sensitivity, tinnitus, sinus congestion, sore throat, unrefreshing sleep, swelling of fingers and feet, fibromyalgia, and heart palpitations. He has had 70-75% resolution of brain fog, fatigue, and lymph node swelling. He still requires injections of IgG due to a deficiency of lgG3, but the injection interval has increased from an average of 14 days to more than 24 days since commencing the MP. After 22 months on the protocol, he reports feeling markedly better than anytime in the last 20 years and is able to work full time and perform strenuous physical activity.

Patient 5 is a 43-year-old man who had psoriasis since the age of seven, chronic insomnia beginning at the age of 26, and sarcoidosis, diagnosed at the age of 36. His wife had been diagnosed with sarcoidosis several years before. This is in accord with the familial tendency that has been observed among Th1 diseases due to spread of the bacteria among family members. Prior to the MP, numerous treatments had failed to help his psoriasis (e.g., PUVA, steroids, fish liver oil). In contrast, while on the MP, the psoriasis went from 70% coverage of his skin to one percent. The insomnia resolved completely soon after the Benicar was begun. The patient had also suffered from chronic kidney stones, which ceased when he began the protocol. Treatment with the MP has resulted in more than 95% resolution of his symptoms of sarcoidosis (coughing, fatigue, sinusitis, memory problems, muscle aches, etc.), and his chest X-ray is now normal as he continues his fourth year of the MP.

Zinc

2007-06-07T03:54:00.000-07:00

Description

Zinc is a mineral that is essential for a healthy immune system, production of certain hormones, wound healing, bone formation, and clear skin. It is required in very small amounts, and is thus known as a trace mineral. Despite the low requirement, zinc is found in nearly every cell of the body and is a key to the proper function of over 300 enzymes, including superoxide dismutase. Normal growth and development cannot occur without it.
General use

The U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for zinc is 5 milligrams (mg) for children under one year of age, 10 mg for children aged one to 10 years old, 15 mg for males 11 years or older, 12 mg for females 11 years or older, 15 mg for women who are pregnant, and 16-19 mg for women who are lactating.

Zinc has become a popular remedy for the common cold . Evidence shows that it is unlikely to prevent upper respiratory infections, but beginning a supplement promptly when symptoms occur can significantly shorten the duration of the illness. The only form of zinc proven effective for this purpose is the zinc gluconate or zinc acetate lozenge. Formulations of 13-23 mg or more appear to be most effective, and need to be dissolved in the mouth in order to exert antiviral properties. Swallowing or sucking on oral zinc tablets will not work. The lozenges can be used every two hours for up to a week or two at most.

People who are deficient in zinc are prone to getting more frequent and longer lasting infections of various types. Zinc acts as an immune booster, in part due to stimulation of the thymus gland. This gland tends to shrink with age, and consequently produces less of the hormones that boost the production of infection-fighting white blood cells. Supplemental zinc, at one to two times RDA amounts, can reverse this tendency and improve immune function.

In another immune stimulant capacity, zinc can offer some relief from chronic infections with Candida albicans, or yeast. Most women will experience a vaginal yeast infection at some time, and are particularly prone to them during the childbearing years. Some individuals appear to be more susceptible than others. One study showed yeast- fighting benefits for zinc even for those who were not deficient in the mineral to begin with. Other supplements that will complement zinc in combating yeast problems are vitamin A , vitamin C , and vitamin E . Another measure that can help to limit problems with Candida is eating yogurt, which is an excellent source of Lactobacillus, a friendly bacteria that competes with yeast. Limiting sweets in the diet and eating garlic or odor-free garlic supplements may also prove helpful.
Related Result
people who are going to have surgery are well advised to make sure they are getting the RDA of zinc, vitamin A, and vitamin C in order to optimize wound healing. A deficiency of any of these nutrients can significantly lengthen the time it takes to heal. Adequate levels of these vitamins and minerals for at least a few weeks before and after surgery can speed healing. The same nutrients are important to minimize the healing time of bedsores, burns, and other skin lesions too.

There are two male health problems that can potentially benefit from zinc supplementation. Testosterone is one of the hormones that requires zinc in order to be produced. Men with infertility as a result of low testosterone levels may experience improvement from taking a zinc supplement. Another common condition that zinc can be helpful for is benign prostatic hypertrophy, a common cause of abnormally frequent urination in older men. Taking an extra 50 mg a day for three to six months offers symptomatic relief for some men.

Teenagers are often low in zinc, and also tend to experience more acne than the general population. The doses used in studies have been in the high range, requiring medical supervision, but increasing dietary zinc or taking a modest supplement in order to get the RDA amount is low risk and may prove helpful for those suffering from acne. Consult a knowledgeable health care provider before taking large doses of any supplement.

There is some evidence that zinc supplementation may slightly relieve the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis , but the studies are not yet conclusive. It's possible that those who initially had low zinc levels benefited the most.

Zinc is sometimes promoted as an aid for memory. This may be true to the extent that vitamin B6 and neurotransmitters are not properly utilized without it. However, in the case of people with Alzheimer's disease , zinc can cause more harm than good. Some experiments indicate that zinc actually decreases intellectual function of people with this disease. Under these circumstances, it is probably best to stick to the RDA of 15 mg as a maximum daily amount of zinc.

The frequency of sickle-cell crisis in patients with sickle-cell anemia may be decreased by zinc supplementation. The decrease was significant in one study, although the severity of the attacks that occurred was not affected. Use of zinc supplementation or other treatment for sickle- cell anemia, a serious condition, should not be undertaken without the supervision of a health care provider.

Freight costs help drive zinc premiums

2007-06-07T03:43:00.000-07:00

Fuel is a part of the cost, and there may be continued pressure on oil," one metals trader said. "There is also a risk factor involved," he added, referring to the current Middle East focus on Iran that has helped push crude oil prices past $70 a barrel.

"Basically, three years ago $400 was your truck cost," he said."Now, that's probably $700. This is a cost that has to be passed along. When premiums go up, part of that is trucking."

Having finally found some solace in softening natural gas prices, metals producers must still contend with escalating freight costs.Freight is a greater cost than natural gas," one alloyer said. The difference is greatest with zinc, which consumes less natural gas than aluminum, he explained. "Every delivery is a separate entity, so we can see freight differential from week to week." For example, a delivery that cost $1,600 this week could be $1,650 or $1,675 the next.

"Our freight costs are higher than our gas and melting costs," a second alloyer said, explaining that he is twice vexed because he trucks in raw materials and trucks out finished products.
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The Short Term Energy and Summer Fuels Outlook issued last week by the Energy Information Administration, Washington, predicted diesel fuel would average $2.62 per gallon for the summer (April through September) season, up 21 cents (8.6 percent) from 2005. Diesel is expected to average $2.59 per gallon this year compared with $2.41 in 2005, an increase of 7.2 percent. This followed a jump of 33 percent from $1.81 per gallon in 2004, according to the EIA.

Diesel prices continue to trend upward in most states, according to figures provided by the American Trucking Association (ATA), Alexandria, Va.

Capacity concerns are another fly in the ointment for trucking activities. "There are times you have struggled to get a truck," the second alloyer said.

Immediate needs sometimes result in higher fees. "At a price, you can always get a truck," he said.

Spot premiums for special high-grade zinc have been as reported as high as 10 cents a pound compared with 7 or 8 cents for contract business. In addition to market tightness, part of the extra cost can be shipping.

Some routes also cost more. "To some areas there is not much backhaul, and if it has to be flatbed that can be tough," the first alloyer said. "Somebody's going to have to pay for that cost," he said. Increased volumes in the flatbed group have led to greater capacity demands, according to the ATA.

Alloy premiums have firmed 0.5 to 1 cent a pound across the board, with premiums reported at 16 cents a pound for die-casting alloys Nos. 3 and 7; 17 cents for No. 5; and 18 cents for No. 2, market sources said. Premiums for zinc-aluminum foundry alloys were reported at 18 cents a pound for No. 8, 21 cents for No. 12 and 28 cents for No. 28.

Coupling is offered in nickel-plated zinc

2007-06-06T05:25:00.000-07:00

St. Paul, MN - June 23, 2005 - Colder Products Company, the leading provider of quick disconnect couplings to industrial and chemical markets, introduces a new die-cast nickel-plated zinc coupling (ZLC). The ZLC is a reliable, economical solution that is particularly suitable for high-volume production requirements when the durability of metal is required. Streamlined and lightweight in relation to comparable machined brass couplings, the ZLC is interchangeable with many of Colder's existing coupling lines. Applications for the ZLC include engine systems, marine, instrumentation, cooling, food and beverage and hand tools, among others.

"We successfully developed a die-cast zinc quick disconnect coupling that met our tight quality and performance requirements," says Patrick Williams, Market and Product Planning Manager, Industrial Markets, Colder Products Company. "This new capability will provide an alternative for customers in applications where thermoplastics or other expensive or cumbersome metal couplings may not be appropriate."
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Colder will continue to offer its original chrome-plated brass coupling, which was introduced twenty-seven years ago. The versatile ZLC further extends the range of applications and industries served. It is interchangeable with the acetal PLC Series, the polypropylene PLC-12 Series, and the chrome-plated brass LC Series.

"The new ZLC is a high-volume, cost-effective solution that addresses the needs of diverse markets," says Andy Hass, Business Unit Manager, Industrial Markets. "As with most Colder products, the ZLC incorporates an easy-to-use thumb latch, automatic shut-off valves, integral terminations, and an audible "click" indicating a secure connection."

The nickel-plated zinc ZLC provides effective chemical resistance to gasoline, ink, air, water and many other fluids. It weighs approximately 20 percent less than comparable chrome-plated brass couplings and operates at temperatures ranging from -10[degrees] F to 150[degrees] F, -23[degrees] C to 66[degrees] C. Temperature capabilities and chemical resistance may be extended with valve and seal options. Prior to plating, the ZLC is impregnated to eliminate porosity. The ZLC is offered in panel mount or in-line configurations and terminations including hose barbs and pipe threads.

For more information about available options and order quantities, please contact the Colder sales department at 1-800-444-2474.

About Colder Products Company

Colder Products Company is a leading provider of quick disconnect couplings to industrial, biopharmaceutical, medical, chemical, and packaging markets. For a free catalog or more information, contact: Colder Products Company, 1001 Westgate Drive, St. Paul, MN 55114. Toll-free: 866-671-9165. Fax: 651-645-5404.

GalvInfo Center helping buyers - lead and zinc information - Brief Article

2007-06-06T05:24:00.000-07:00

ITTSBURGH -- Producers of steel and zinc products have banded together to create a new information center to provide technical assistance to buyers of coated steel sheet.

The new GalvInfo Center, located in North Carolina's Research Triangle Park, was established by the International Lead Zinc Research Organization, the cooperative research arm of the zinc industry.

Fourteen companies and organizations with interests in galvanized steel--the American Zinc Association, Bethlehem Steel Corp., Big River Zinc Corp., Eastern Alloys, Henkel Surface Technologies, the International Zinc Association, LTV Steel Corp., Metaltech, National Steel Corp., Oakite Products, PPG Industries Inc., U.S. Steel Group of USX Corp., Valspar Corp. and Weirton Steel Corp.--have provided financial backing for the center. Their financial commitments were not disclosed. The center will be run by Ralph Leonard, who will serve as its director. Leonard's career in the industry includes 30 years with U.S. Steel Group, here, in the areas of production; use and performance of coated sheet products.

The center has been organized primarily to answer technical inquiries about the use of metallic coated steel sheet products, in which zinc is a major component of the coating. This includes galvanized and galvannealed products, Galvalume steel sheet and Galfan steel sheet. The center also will answer inquiries concerning the performance of surface treatments and paints.
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Its objectives are "to provide technical assistance to users and potential users of zinc-coated steel sheet products" and to "broaden the understanding of the user community about the behavior and performance of zinc-coated steel sheet products."

Leonard said the center was up and running and already receiving inquiries. "Inquiries are starting to come in," he said, from buyers, architects, builders and all manner of customers who use coated sheet.

China's appetite still driving lead, zinc demand

2007-06-06T05:22:00.000-07:00

Having taken into account updated information received from its member countries regarding supply, demand and trade, in addition to releases from the U.S. Defense National Stockpile, (the ILZSG) anticipates there will be a deficit in the Western World refined zinc market of just under 200,000 tonnes in 2005," the London-based group said in a post-meeting announcement Tuesday.

Global demand for refined lead metal is expected to rise 2.5 percent in 2005 to 7.25 million tonnes, again due to demand by China, where usage is expected to rise 8.1 percent. Demand in Europe and the United States has been affected by a shift in battery manufacturing to lower-cost countries in recent years, and 2005 consumption is expected to remain level with last year in both regions, the ILZSG said.

Also discussed were a host of new regulations that could pose problems for the lead and zinc industries, including the current zinc and lead risk assessment processes, the lead-related outcomes of the recent meeting of the United Nations Environment Program Governing Council, and the introduction of an emissions-trading scheme for greenhouse gases in the European Union.
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The ILZSG announced that the group's headquarters and secretariat will move to Lisbon, Portugal, where it will share space with the International Nickel Study Group and the International Copper Study Group.

Zinc supplementation during pregnancy in HIV-infected mothers

2007-06-02T03:47:00.000-07:00

Poor maternal zinc status is associated with adverse pregnancy outcome in many observational studies and in early randomized trials with various methodologic limitations. In a trial among African-American women with low plasma zinc concentrations, prenatal zinc supplementation resulted in a significant increase in birth weight and in longer duration of pregnancy. The results suggest that zinc supplementation may be beneficial in developing countries, where pregnant women may be more likely to have suboptimal zinc intakes. No maternal zinc trial has been carried out in African settings, where HIV infection is prevalent. Apart from its potential effects on pregnancy outcome, the relations between zinc status and HIV-related outcome are controversial.

Investigators enrolled HIV-infected pregnant women in Africa to examine the efficacy of zinc supplements on birth outcomes, including fetal death, birth weight, and duration of pregnancy. Eligibility required an estimated gestational age at randomization of between 12 wk and 27 wk. Women received a daily oral dose of one of the two interventions from enrollment until the end of the study at 6 wk postpartum: a) 25 mg Zn as zinc sulfate included in an effervescent citrus-flavored tablet or b) a similarly constituted zinc-free placebo. Demographic information was obtained at the first visit. Also, at baseline and every month thereafter, a study physician conducted a full physical examination, and a research nurse gathered information on health problems during the prior month and obtained anthropometric measurements. The primary endpoint of the trial was to examine the effect of zinc supplementation on hemoglobin concentrations between enrollment and 6 wk postpartum.

Researchers observed no significant differences in birth weight, duration of gestation, or fetal and neonatal mortality between women in the zinc and placebo groups. Hemoglobin concentrations increased between baseline and 6 wk postpartum in both groups. However, the rise in hemoglobin over this period was significantly lower (P = 0.03) in the zinc group than in the placebo group. Similarly, the changes in red blood celt count and in packed cell volume over the same period were significantly lower in the zinc group (P < 0.01 and P = 0.01, respectively). Zinc had no effect on C[D.sup.4], CD[8.sup.+], or CD[3.sup.+] cell counts during the follow-up period.

Because of the lack of beneficial effects of zinc on adverse pregnancy outcome and the likelihood of negative effects on hemoglobin concentrations, no compelling evidence exists to support the addition of zinc to prenatal supplements intended for pregnant HIV-infected women.

W. Fawzi, E. Villamor, G. Msamanga, et al. Trial of zinc supplements in relation to pregnancy outcome, hematologic indicators, and T cell counts among HIV-1-infected women in Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr; 81:161-167 (January, 2005). (Correspondence: WW Fawzi, Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntignton Avenue, Boston, MA 02115. E-mail: mina@hsph.harvard.edu).

CCD-Based Spectrometer supports zinc alloy applications

2007-06-02T03:44:00.000-07:00

ARL QUANTRIS(TM) optical emission spectrometer can be configured with up to 3 spectrographs to cover wavelengths from 130-780 nm, enabling analysis of all elements of interest in zinc alloys within 35 sec. Each module is flat field spectrograph with single CCD. Product comes with Current Controlled Source, vacuum spectrometer, automatic optical alignment, and spectrum profiling. Electronic spectrograph lets users perform qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis using spectra.

ECUBLENS, Switzerland (June 8, 2006) - Thermo Electron Corporation announces the addition of zinc alloy applications to its second-generation Charge Coupled Device (CCD)-based spectrometer, the ARL QUANTRIS(TM). Thermo's state-of-the-art optical emission spectrometer achieves highly accurate and reproducible analyses of all major elements in the zinc matrix in 35 seconds, thus minimizing production costs. This superior analytical performance is equivalent to that of traditional Photo-Multiplier Tube (PMT) spectrometers.

Zinc alloys are used to produce protective coatings for iron, steel, brass and zinc alloy castings as well as sheets for building applications and a range of chemical applications. There are a wide variety of zinc alloys, which can be grouped according to their end use such as galvanizing, hot-dip galvanizing and die-casting alloys. The unique ARL QUANTRIS is the ideal solution to address the analytical needs of the industry, even in the most rugged environments.

The ARL QUANTRIS can be configured with up to three spectrographs to cover wavelengths from 130 to 780 nm, enabling the analysis of all elements of interest including alloying elements such as aluminum, copper and magnesium as well as trace elements such as lead, cadmium, tin, indium and thallium in zinc alloys. The instrument is factory calibrated utilizing CARL (Calibration ARL), a sophisticated multivariable regression tool that corrects for matrix effects as well as spectral interferences. CARL provides an immediate turnkey system with the highest accuracy possible.

Each module of the ARL QUANTRIS is a flat field spectrograph with a single CCD. Furthermore, the ARL QUANTRIS is equipped with Thermo's patented Current Controlled Source (CCS), the only servo-controlled digital source available on the market with a high degree of flexibility to enable all analytical figures to be optimized for each type of metal.

The ARL QUANTRIS, with its vacuum spectrometer, automatic optical alignment and spectrum profiling, among other features, demonstrates exceptional stability thereby reducing the need for drift correction and allowing more time for production sample analyses. The electronic spectrograph allows scientists to perform qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis using the spectra, all in connection with a wavelength library with more than 140,000 lines. The instrument is exceptionally easy to use, even by unskilled users. Drift corrections and instrument stand maintenance are required only once a week leading to lower operation costs.

For more information about Thermo's ARL QUANTRIS and the complete range of optical emission spectrometers, please call +1 800-532-4752, e-mail analyze@thermo.com or visit www.thermo.com/elemental

About Elemental Analysis

A leader in AA, ICP, ICP-MS, X-ray, OE spectrometers and Combustion Elemental Analyzers for fast, accurate analysis of liquids, solids and powders, Thermo's elemental analysis systems are used for process and quality control, environmental and hazardous materials monitoring, and R&D in the environmental, pharmaceutical, semiconductor, food and beverage, petrochemical, metal and geological markets. Our acclaimed line of elemental analysis products includes mobile, desktop, laboratory and automation models. For more information, visit www.thermo.com/elemental

About Thermo Electron Corporation

Thermo Electron Corporation is the world leader in analytical instruments. Our instrument solutions enable our customers to make the world a healthier, cleaner and safer place. Thermo's Life and Laboratory Sciences segment provides analytical instruments, scientific equipment, services and software solutions for life science, drug discovery, clinical, environmental and industrial laboratories. Thermo's Measurement and Control segment is dedicated to providing analytical instruments used in a variety of manufacturing processes and in-the-field applications, including those associated with safety and homeland security. For more information, visit www.thermo.com

Base metals fall on China news

2007-04-21T04:31:00.001-07:00

London Metal Exchange base metals fell across the board Thursday, triggered by fears that China may tighten its monetary policy to cool its economy and bearish U.S. manufacturing data, but a period of consolidation is expected over the near-term, said market participants.

Concerns that China may hike interest rates following China 1Q GDP coming in +11.1% on-year triggered an initial wave of selling across many asset classes, including base and precious metals, according to traders.

Three-month copper fell roughly 2% from Wednesday driven primarily by technical selling and fund liquidation, said one London based broker. Weaker U.S. economic data also exacerbated the bearish environment, the broker noted.

Manufacturers in the Philadelphia area saw only the mildest expansion in activity in April, with growth in the sector coming in below expectations.

In a report Thursday, the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia said that its business conditions index, a gauge of the health of the region's manufacturing sector, had a reading of 0.2 in April, flat from March. Economists had expected April's reading to stand at 2.5.

Negative readings indicate a contraction in activity, while positive ones denote expansion.

However, consumer and bargain-hunting provided good underlying support, according to another broker.

In addition, LME data Thursday showing a drawdown in copper stocks by 1,500 tons was also supportive. Overall copper stocks have fallen some 6% since the start of April.

The market also continues to keep a close watch on developments over supply disruptions at PT Freeport Indonesia's Grasberg copper and gold mine. Thousands of workers have gone on strike at the mine, which produces 1,800 tons of copper and 9,000 troy ounces of gold a day.

The strike is expected to continue until Friday, when negotiations between labor representatives and the company resume.

In other metals, three-month zinc fell roughly 2% to a PM kerb of $3,600/ton. The weakness was triggered after prices broke through the 200-day moving average of $3,640 a metric ton and due to spillover weakness from the entire base metals complex, said a London trader.

Adding to bearish sentiment, World Bureau of Metal Statistics said Wednesday that global zinc market in surplus by 84,000 tons during January, February of '07.

Meanwhile three-month tin reversed its earlier gains to fall in sympathy with the base metals complex.

Over the past two days, tin prices have fallen over 10% triggered by news that PT Koba Tin, Indonesian's second-largest tin producer, was granted an export license.

Indonesia produces about 120,000 tons of tin a year, around one third of global supply. Last October, the Southeast Asian country closed dozens of small-scale smelters that together produced about half the country's annual tin output on allegations they were purchasing tin ore illegally, damaging the environment and evading taxes.

Copper up as China rate hike fears recede, LME stocks drop

2007-04-21T04:30:00.002-07:00

Copper rose in morning trades as LME warehouse stocks declined for a fourth day running and as worries receded over possible rate hikes in China, where GDP data out yesterday showed rapid economic expansion in the first quarter.

The metal was also supported by the ongoing protest at Freeport McMoRan's Grasberg mine in Indonesia. Grasberg, one of the world's largest copper and gold mines, is still operating, but well below capacity.

At 10.05 am, LME copper for three month delivery was quoted at 7,875 usd a tonne in SELECT electronic trades, up from a kerb close of 7,825 usd a tonne yesterday.

"Copper is taking a little bit of encouragement from the (LME) stock decline and rise in cancelled warrants, and also concerns are diminishing over China rate hikes," said Roy Carson, analyst at Triland Metals.

"The tone looks quite steady. Expect the copper market to try to revisit 8,000 usd a tonne later today."

The LME said in a daily report copper stocks held in its warehouses fell by another 1,150 tonnes to total 169,075 tonnes, while cancelled warrants – metal set to be removed from warehouses – rose to 19,250 tonnes.

The fall in inventory for a fourth day running took overall stocks to a four-month low and sparked concerns the market might tighten further, especially with still strong demand from China.

Chinese copper imports rose to record levels in March. Meanwhile, data out yesterday showed the Chinese economy grew by a larger than expected 11.1 pct in the first quarter.

The data sparked a sell-off in Chinese equities amid fears the Chinese authorities might raise rates in an attempt to curb the booming economy. Base metals prices also fell yesterday on the rate hike fears.

But BaseMetals.com analyst William Adams said the sell-off yesterday was more to do with profit taking and consolidation from recent peaks. Copper hit a 7-month high of 8,100 usd a tonne on Tuesday.

"Overall the markets seem to have taken the sell-off in Chinese equities as another excuse to take profits, but the follow-through weakness across global equities did not last," he said.

He added that while the metals might consolidate near term, "the overall picture is for further strength to unfold and China's GDP figure is probably the most bullish indicator we have had for a long time".

Aluminium was down at 2,830 usd a tonne against 2,845 usd, as the metal struggled to recover from a huge increase of nearly 12,000 tonnes in LME stocks yesterday.

Nickel was also lower, down at 47,400 usd a tonne against 47,525 usd.

Tin was up sharply, rising more than 2 pct to 13,730 usd a tonne as the metal recovered from sharp falls this week, which followed news Indonesia granted export permits PT Koba Tin, the country's second biggest producer.

The news indicated supply from Indonesia, the world's second largest tin producer, is recovering after having been disrupted for much of this year because of a government crackdown on illegal tin mining.

Zinc was up at 3,630 usd against 3,600 usd while lead rose to 1,950 usd against 1,930 usd.

Zinc mine to open in Botswana

2007-04-21T04:30:00.001-07:00

Botswana will soon open a zinc mine along Botswana-Namibia boarder at a place known as Kihabe, west of Nokaneng in the North West District.

The project started in 1983 but due to its remoteness within Botswana and the struggle for independence in Namibia through the 1980s, the project was inactive.

Mount Burgess Mining applied for a prospecting licence at Kihabe for 1969/03 and was granted and if all went according to plan, the project would be scheduled to commence production around November 2008, the company news states.

The prospecting licence covered a fault-bounded basin where potential exists for sediment-hosted base and precious metals deposits and nuclear fuels in the form of Carnotite, says the statement from the companys website.

The company says recent drilling by Mount Burgess mining into a 2.4km long base metals anomaly confirmed the presence of significant zones of zinc, lead and silver with credits for copper (0.34 per cent) and vanadium.

Mount Burgess Mining requested both Namibian and Botswana governments to open the Dobe boarder gate near Tsumkwe in Namibia, which was the companys base for diamond exploration.

With these developments in place, remoteness of the project was no longer an issue as it could be accessed either from Nokaneng along the Maun/ Shakawe Road or 120km road of gravel from Tsumkwe in Namibia through the Dobe boarder gate, 15km north of the project.

A statement from Mount Burgess Mining, Chief Executive Officer, Nigel Forrester in Australia, indicates that there is significant zinc, lead and silver wealth in the order of 11 million tonnes calculated to a depth of 150 metres with some extensions to 190 metres.

The planned project schedule was to follow a pre-feasibility study that commenced in July 2006 and completed in December the same year and the feasibility study started in January this year and will be completed in July.

Based upon a positive bankable feasibility study and approval to commence mining, the project finance will be sought for design and construction. Recently, during the Botswana Resource Sector Conference in Gaborone, Mr Forrester told delegates that due to sustained growth in countries such as China and India zinc was in high demand.

Some projects in China are reputed to have been postponed because of zinc shortage, he had said.

Mr Forrester had also said other developments taking place in China are that 345 million people were expected to move from rural areas to cities by 2020 and that 110 extra civil air ports were planned by 2015 as well as 15 000 kilometres of extra railways by 2010 and all these would need the use of zinc despite its price rise.

Base metals complex rebounds on investment interest

2007-04-21T04:29:00.000-07:00

London Metal Exchange base metals bounced Friday due to short-covering and speculative investment interest, with further gains expected early next week, according to market players.

As the U.S. market opened a flurry of speculative and fund interest extended earlier strength across the base metals complex. By the afternoon kerb, however, prices retreated from their highs due to profit-taking ahead of the weekend.

LME copper rebounded after falling sharply Thursday on fears China may tighten its monetary policy to cool its economy.

Declining LME stocks as well as supply concerns at PT Freeport's Grasberg mine in Indonesia added to underlying copper price support, one broker said.

"Despite such a volatile week, base metals were well underpinned," he said. "After this consolidation, prices should look to move higher next week."

For the past several sessions, copper has traded in a broad range between $7,600 a metric ton and $8,100/ton.

The market continues to watch the developments out of Indonesia. PT Freeport said Friday it will continue to hold talks Saturday with representatives from Tongoi Papua, a group that lobbies the company on behalf of native Papuan employees.

Freeport said Friday it continues to mine and mill at reduced rates and ship concentrates from available production and inventories.

However, according to market sources, Freeport has been actively inquiring in the spot concentrates market for material in order to keep the shipments going and to avoid force majeure. The tightness in the copper spot market has made this difficult, they added.

Against the backdrop of the ongoing protests, the question going forward will be for how long can Freeport survive before having to declare force majeure, market sources noted.

Elsewhere at the LME, three-month zinc and nickel remained well supported due to spillover strength in the base and precious metals, as well as a decline in inventories.

According to LME data, zinc inventories fell 1,725 tons to 100,700 tons while nickel stocks fell 210 tons to 4,056 tons.

Copper's price rise, short-covering, and a general buoyancy in the base metals complex gave a boost to zinc prices, said Michael Skinner of Standard Bank in London.

Meanwhile, LME tin rebounded after an over 10% fall during the last few days triggered by news that PT Koba Tin, Indonesian's second-largest tin producer, was granted an export license.

Consumer buying continues to support LME tin at the lower prices levels as the metal tries to build a base, according to market players.

Cardero options Los Manantiales gold property to Hochschild subsidiary

2007-04-14T02:36:00.004-07:00

Cardero Resource Corp. (the "Company") (TSX: CDU, AMEX: CDY, Frankfurt: CR5) said Tuesday that it has entered into a letter of intent with Hochschild Mining Holdings Limited ('HMHL'), a subsidiary of Hochschild Mining plc (LSE: HOC), pursuant to which it has granted HMHL the option to earn up to a 70% interest in the Los Manantiales Gold property, located in Chubut Province, Argentina.

According to publicly available information, mineralization at Los Manantiales (originally called 'Mina Angela') consists of low sulphidation epithermal vein systems hosted by Jurassic andesitic volcanics. Production took place on selected veins between 1978 and 1992. From 1983, when accurate mining records began, until closure in 1992, Los Manantiales produced 1,037,360 tons at an average grade of 4.0g/t gold, 48.4g/t silver, 2.0% lead, 0.4% copper and 4.6% zinc. Mineralization remains open at depth.

Most recently, in 1997 and 1998, Lonrho Mining of South Africa conducted significant exploration and discovered a new vein system, El Sahuel. Based on very limited testing the best drill intersection obtained was 1.36 metres grading 40.65 g/t gold, 1773 g/t silver, 1.79% lead, 0.23% copper and 10.06% zinc at a vertical depth of 65 metres below surface. Another hole drilled on the El Sahuel system intersected a second vein approximately 65 metres to the west which returned 2 metres averaging 6.69 g/t gold, 240g/t silver, 0.52% lead, 0.04% copper and 2.19% zinc. At the end of 1998 Lonrho decided to concentrate on mining activities in Africa and withdrew from overseas exploration, including South America. Geophysics indicates that the vein system has a potential strike length of 1.6 kilometres. The system is presently poorly delineated and remains open along strike and at depth.

'Possessing strong technical expertise, our primary objective is exploration and discovery of world-class deposits,' stated Henk Van Alphen, president and CEO. 'This joint venture with Hochschild is an excellent opportunity that will enable us to continue our aggressive exploration strategy while having the potential for participation in a cash-flow project operated by an established producer'.

Jorge Benavides, Hochschild's Chief Executive of Exploration stated: 'The Los Manantiales option exemplifies the kind of partnership that Hochschild can offer to precious metals producers in the region – combining our expertise in the extraction of precious metals from narrow epithermal vein deposits with their assets and expertise in exploration to release the value of this exciting project.'

Pursuant to the letter of intent, HMHL has a period of 60 days to carry out due diligence. The Company received a payment of USD 40,000 on the signing of the letter of intent, which is refundable to HMHL if it declines to proceed following the completion of due diligence (which it may only do in the event a material adverse condition is found to exist). Following a decision to proceed upon completion of due diligence, HMHL may earn an initial 60% interest in the property by incurring an aggregate of USD 3,500,000 in expenditures over 4 years.

Upon HMHL having earned an initial 60% interest, the Company may elect to either participate at its 40% interest level, or request HMHL to fund the preparation of a bankable feasibility study within 4 years of such request and thereby earn an additional 10% interest in the joint venture. Upon such request being made by the Company, HMHL may either elect to fund the bankable feasibility or not. If it does so, it will earn the additional 10% interest upon completion of the bankable feasibility study. Following the formation of the joint venture and the completion of its earn-in requirements by HMHL, each participant is responsible for funding its share of joint venture expenditures. If it does not do so, its interest will be diluted. Upon the interest of a participant being diluted to less than 10%, such interest will be converted to a 2% net smelter return royalty.

About Hochschild Mining plc

Hochschild Mining plc (HOC.L for Reuters / HOC LN for Bloomberg) is a publicly held company listed on the London Stock Exchange. Hochschild is a leading precious metals company with a primary focus on the exploration, mining, processing and sale of silver and gold, and currently operates three underground epithermal vein mines located in southern Peru. Hochschild also has three advanced stage development projects, one in each of Mexico, Peru and Argentina and one early stage development project in Mexico. In addition, Hochschild has over twenty long-term prospects throughout Latin America. Hochschild over forty years experience in the mining of precious metal epithermal vein deposits.

About Cardero Resource Corp.

Cardero is well financed and positioned to continue to explore its projects in Mexico, Peru, and Argentina. The common shares of the Company are currently listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange (symbol CDU), the American Stock Exchange (symbol CDY) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (symbol CR5). The Company is actively evaluating new gold, copper and iron projects, and continues to maintain an active pipeline of prospects.

LME copper falls 3% on technical selling

2007-04-14T02:36:00.003-07:00

London Metal Exchange copper fell sharply late Tuesday on technical selling, but trades said market players should view the lower prices as a good buying opportunity.

Three-month copper traded to a high of $6,895 a metric ton Tuesday before retreating roughly 3% to a PM kerb of $6,678/ton.

A fall below $6,800/ton triggered an initial round of technical selling further exacerbated by long liquidation ahead of the PM kerb, according to a London trader, sending prices sharply lower.

The long liquidation was triggered by disappointed market players after the metal couldn't push towards the key psychological $7,000 a metric ton level, the trader noted. Since the start of March, LME copper has jumped roughly 10%.

However, market players should see lower metals prices as a good buying opportunity, the LME trader said.

Bearish U.S. economic data also weighed on price sentiment. The Conference Board consumer confidence index for March slipped to 107.2, from a revised 111.2 in February, its weakest reading since November 2006 and below expectations of 108.0.

Moreover, "the steady downtrend in LME copper stocks continues to provide support to prices," said Barclays Capital in a daily note. "Also positively, copper open interest has been rising steadily for the last few days... all this suggests fresh buying interest in copper."

In other metals, three-month lead was under pressure after an easing in supply concerns from Australia. The metal rose to a high of $1,910/ton before retreating some 3% to a PM kerb of $1,850/ton.

Ivernia Inc.'s wholly-owned Magellan Metals said Monday it is pursuing alternative shipping arrangements after the Western Australian port of Esperance canceled lead shipments March 14 when abnormally high levels of lead and nickel were found in surrounding waters.

Meanwhile, three-month tin pushed to a fresh record high of $14,600/ton, up 0.4% from Monday, before retreating to a PM kerb of $14,590/ton.

LME tin continues to make fresh highs amid very little buying interest with momentum firmly on the upside and $15,000/ton the key overhead target, a London broker said.

"Price gains in tin continue to be underpinned by the supply side problems from Indonesia in an environment characterized by strong tin demand and low LME tin inventory," said Barclays.

Last October, Indonesia closed dozens of small-scale smelters that together produced about half the country's annual tin output on allegations they were purchasing tin ore illegally, damaging the environment and evading taxes.

Meanwhile, LME tin supplies have fallen some 6% from month-ago levels and some 26% from the start of 2007.

Traders and analysts said they will keep a close watch on Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke's testimony Wednesday for further indications of the health of the U.S. economy. Bernanke will testify at 1330 GMT before the congressional Joint Economic Committee on the outlook for the U.S. economy.

China's nonferrous output set to grow 15% in 2007: CNMIA

2007-04-14T02:36:00.001-07:00

Nonferrous metal production in China is expected to grow by 15% in 2007, led by aluminium and copper, boosted by mounting demand, China Daily reported Tuesday, quoting an industry organization.

The combined production of 10 main metals aluminium, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, tin, magnesium, titanium, antimony and mercury will reach 22 million mt in 2007, up from 19.17 million mt last year, said Kang Yi, president of the China Nonferrous Metal Industry Association.

The 2006 figure made China the world's top nonferrous metal manufacturer for a fifth consecutive year.

Kang said aluminium production would climb to 11 million mt this year from 9.35 million mt in 2006.

In the meantime, copper production would increase to 3.45 million mt from 3 million mt, he said.

Kang said China's demand for nonferrous metals would continue to grow this year thanks to booming metal-consuming industrial sectors such as real estate and cars. But he did not provide a specific forecast for 2007 demand.

"Prices (of nonferrous metals) will continue to sway at high levels this year," Kang said.

In 2006, prices of many nonferrous metals such as aluminium, copper, zinc and nickel hit record highs at home and abroad as a result of strong demand and hedge funds buying up metals futures.

Liu Defei, an analyst with Beijing-based metal industry consultancy Antaike Information Development, said domestic aluminium demand would surge by 28% to 10.8 million mt this year from 2006. The growth is up from the 21% reported last year, Liu said.

Meanwhile, Kang predicted China's production of alumina, the raw material used to make aluminium, would jump to 20 million mt in 2007 from 13.7 million mt in 2006, driven by swelling aluminium production.

Li Yusheng, also from Antaike, said copper demand in China would rise by 5.5% to 3.8 million mt this year. But the pace is down from the 9.2% posted in 2006, Li said, attributing this largely to high copper prices. "Due to lofty copper prices, many copper users in China are shifting to other relatively cheap metals, such as aluminium and alloy, to cut costs," he said.

Both the Antaike analysts, however, said prices of aluminium and copper would decline this year from the sensational levels of 2006. Liu said average aluminium prices in China would stand at around Yuan 18,000($2,326)/mt this year, down from more than Yuan 20,000/mt in 2006. Li said domestic copper prices would tumble to some Yuan 50,000/mt on average, down from Yuan 60,000/mt.

Last year's bullish prices saw the nonferrous metal industry rake in Yuan 110.03 billion in profits for 2006, doubling 2005's total, according to the association. Fixed-assets investment in the sector reached Yuan 118.08 billion last year, up 36.44%.The growth rate was down 6 percentage points from 2005 as a result of the government's macroeconomic controls.

Solitario reports high-grade drilling results on its Bongara zinc project, Peru

2007-04-14T02:34:00.003-07:00

Solitario Resources Corporation (TSX: SLR; AMEX: XPL) announced Tuesday outstanding drill intercepts of high-grade zinc mineralization on its Bongara zinc project in northern Peru. The 26-hole, 4,354 meter program, completed in late 2006, was managed and funded by Solitario's joint venture partner Votorantim Metais. In addition, Solitario and Votorantim also signed a formal Framework Agreement that replaces the previously announced Letter Agreement and provides definitive terms for the relationship between the parties to the venture.

The Bongara project hosts the Florida Canyon zinc deposit where high-grade zinc mineralization has been intersected in drill holes over an area at least two by two kilometers in dimension. The deposit is open to expansion in all directions.
2006 drilling program results

Highlights of the 2006 drilling program include the following drill holes:

A-1: 36.2 meters @ 12.84% zinc, 2.69% lead and 18.45 g/t silver
A-5: 5.2 meters @ 15.04% zinc, 0.66% lead and 5.73 g/t silver
C-4: 6.8 meters @ 15.98% zinc, 5.03% lead and 36.51 g/t silver
D-5: 8.2 meters @ 7.57% zinc, 1.27% lead and 10.31 g/t silver
E-1: 2.5 meters @ 25.48% zinc, 0.69% lead and 9.61 g/t silver
E-3: 2.8 meters @ 22.05% zinc, 6.47% lead and 47.96 g/t silver
E-5: 5.3 meters @ 29.77% zinc, 4.65% lead and 43.99 g/t silver
E-6: 4.8 meters @ 12.07% zinc, 1.06% lead and 6.94 g/t silver

The 2006 drilling program focused upon a relatively limited area within the known mineralized system. Four drill platforms situated between 100 and 150 meters apart tested in detail an area approximately 200 meters by 500 meters in dimension. Drill hole intercept spacing of the mineralized horizons within this detailed drill area ranged from 25 to 140 meters. The specific drilling targets consisted of two stratiform layers of mineralization, the Milagros and Karen zones. Significant mineralization, greater than 2.0% zinc over 2.0 meters (or equivalent), was intersected in 19 out of 24 drill holes completed to the target depth, with two holes failing to reach the target horizon due to drilling difficulties. This is an exceptional success ratio of good drill holes to sub-mineralized holes and bodes well for the overall potential of the project. Results of these 19 drill holes are provided in the attached table.

Chris Herald, President and CEO of Solitario commented, "To put these results into perspective, this program tested only about 5% of the known mineralized system. This is the first drilling program to define stratiform mineralization in detail, as previous drilling at Florida Canyon consisted of widely-spaced drill holes in the range of 100 to 300 meters apart. These impressive drilling results confirm the continuity and quality of mineralization and provide additional evidence that the Florida Canyon deposit represents one of the best undeveloped zinc deposits in the world. Votorantim has already initiated studies for an underground exploration program and analyses for road access to the Bongara project with definite plans for an expanded drilling program resuming in mid-2007. We look forward to Votorantim quickly advancing this quality asset."
Terms of the Framework Agreement

The Framework Agreement contains business terms identical to the previously signed and announced Letter Agreement. Votorantim has already completed its year-one $1.0 million work commitment and can earn up to a 70% interest in the project by completing future annual exploration and development expenditures and making cash payments annually after the first year. The option to earn the 70% interest can be exercised by Votorantim at any time by committing to place the project into production based upon a feasibility study. Votorantim's future minimum annual expenditures are $1.5 million in each of years two and three, and $2.5 million in all subsequent years until a minimum of $18.0 million has been expended. Votorantim is the project operator and may elect to terminate its option to earn a 70% interest at any time.

Once Votorantim has fully funded its $18.0 million work commitment, it has further agreed to finance Solitario's 30% participating interest for construction. Solitario will repay the loan facility through its cash flow distributions.

Project History

Solitario discovered the Florida Canyon deposit in 1996 and joint ventured the Bongara project with Cominco Ltd. in early 1997. Cominco spent approximately US$16.0 million on the project, including drilling 80 core holes within the Florida Canyon deposit area between 1997 and 2000.
About Votorantim Metais

Votorantim Metais belongs to a privately-held Brazilian industrial conglomerate that is a leader in every market segment in which it operates, including cement, pulp and paper, metals, chemicals, orange juice, and finance. In 2005, Votorantim Group's revenues amounted to US$ 7.8 billion. The metal business division accounted for 30.4% of revenues and produces zinc, nickel, steel and aluminium.

Votorantim Metais is the world's tenth largest primary zinc producer with three operating zinc smelters and two operating zinc mines. It owns the Cajamarquilla zinc smelter and is a major shareholder of Milpo, both located in Peru.
About Solitario

Solitario is a gold, silver, platinum-palladium, and base metal exploration company actively exploring in Brazil, Mexico and Peru. Besides Votorantim, Solitario has significant business relationships with Newmont Mining and Anglo Platinum. Solitario has approximately US$24 million in cash and marketable securities and no debt. Solitario is traded on the American Stock Exchange (AMEX: XPL) and on the Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX: SLR).

Copper steadies amid falling stocks but weak US data caps gains

2007-04-14T02:34:00.001-07:00

Copper steadied as stocks of the metal stored in LME warehouses dropped for the thirteenth consecutive day but weak housing data weighed on prices.

Inventories of the metal in LME-monitored warehouses across the globe fell by a hefty 1,050 tonnes to 180,500 tonnes since yesterday.

Copper has gained around 3 pct since last week amid depleting stocks.

At 11.22 am, LME copper for 3 month delivery was down at 6,840 usd a tonne against 6,852 usd at the close yesterday.

A new report by the International Copper Study Group (ICSG) which said global refined copper capacity is expected to reach 24.4 tonnes by 2011, up 18 pct from 2006, limited falls.

"China and Chile will be the main contributors to the total refinery capacity rise," noted the ICSG.

Weaker US housing data was likely to cap metals' prices, said UBS analyst Robin Bhar. However, while copper was hit the hardest, most other metals were resilient to the data, released yesterday, which showed new home sales drop by 3.9 pct in February to their lowest levels since 2000.

Base metals across the board were relatively steady in line with falling inventories and renewed confidence that Chinese demand was not easing.

"Falling inventories reinforced confidence that Chinese demand was recovering to a degree sufficient to offset lingering weakness in the US housing sector," said Deutsche Bank analyst Peter Richardson.

Tin stayed close to its fresh all time high of 14,575 usd struck yesterday amid depleting stocks and continued supply-side fears from Indonesia.

Tin was down at 14,450 usd against 14,530 usd at the close yesterday.

"The ongoing supply side problems from Indonesia's Bangka island in an environment of positive demand and low inventories should support tin prices higher through 2007," said Barclays in a recent report.

Barclays and Deutsche Bank both revised their forecast for tin, and indeed most other base metals, upward yesterday.

A government crackdown on illegal small-scale mining in Indonesia, the world's second biggest producer after China, is still hitting production levels.

Indonesian officials have reportedly indicated that private tin smelters look unlikely to receive export permits in the near future after being ordered to obtain new mining permits.

In other metals, nickel was up at 42,550 usd against 42,500 usd, lead edged higher to 1,895 usd against 1,891 usd while zinc was up at 3,260 usd at 3,250 usd. Aluminium was up at 2,739 usd against 2,725 usd yesterday.

Teck Cominco should continue to grow on increasing Chinese demand

2007-03-27T03:21:00.001-07:00

Trading Desk submits: As the global interest in metals climbed in recent years, the role of China and its demand for these materials has often taken center stage.

Experts continue to waver about whether the country's remarkable economic growth is sustainable, but actual figures on what China is importing and exporting can shed some light on where metals prices may be heading.

On Thursday, China reported that it imported a larger-than-expected volume of net refined copper in February, something Desjardins Securities analyst John Hughes says is a positive signal for western copper producers like Teck Cominco Ltd. (NYSE: TCK).

He expects China will continue to boosts its copper imports this year, which will bring upward pressure on prices.

The first quarter is the low point for Teck Cominco's earnings, according to Desjardins' forecast, which is driven by the US60¢ decline in the price of copper and a US30¢ decline for zinc, when compared to fourth quarter averages in 2006.

Mr. Hughes reiterated his 'buy' rating on the stock and C$98.85 price target, which represents upside of more than 20%.

China bans new lead, zinc projects in big and midsize cities

2007-03-27T03:20:00.004-07:00

China has set access requirements on lead and zinc production, according to the State Development and Reform Commission (SDRC).

The country will not permit the launching of new lead and zinc smelting projects within one kilometre of suburbs of big and midsize cities and residential areas, holiday resorts, hospitals, and food and pharmaceutical enterprises which demand certain environmental conditions.

* SDRC has asked local governments at various levels to choose sites for lead and zinc smelting plants in a rational way.

* New lead and zinc smelting projects are not allowed to be launched in natural reserves, ecological protection areas, scenic spots and drinking water source areas designated by the state or governments above the county level.

Copper up amid decline in LME inventories; tin hits record high

2007-03-27T03:20:00.003-07:00

Copper extended last week's gains amid yet another decline in London Metal Exchange inventories and as market participants remained upbeat on the metal's near-term prospects, while tin rose to a record high on supply concerns.

At 1.18 pm, LME copper for 3 month delivery was up at 6,812 usd a tonne against 6,720 usd at the close Friday.

'We remain friendly to the copper market short term and note that while uptrends in other metals ... are looking vulnerable, the correction in copper on Friday was off a three month high and is likely indicative of a market pausing rather than turning lower,' said JP Morgan analyst Michael Jansen.

Copper closed flat on Friday although the metal posted gains of nearly 2 pct on the week, underpinned by declining LME stocks and data out from China showing copper imports in February nearly doubled from a year ago.

Jansen noted the past two weeks have seen the LME's available or on-warrant copper stocks declined for four out of five trading sessions, leaving available stocks at under 170,000 tonnes, or less than one week's consumption.

The trend for falling stocks has continued today, underpinning copper. The LME said in a daily report copper stocks in its warehouses declined by 2,100 tonnes to 181,550 tonnes, leaving only 167,550 tonnes available to the market.

Numis said strong Chinese imports, firm global GDP growth, a recovery in US housing starts and a more neutral Fed monetary policy have led it to raise its 2007 forecasts for copper, as well as for aluminium and nickel.

Deutsche Bank also raised its 2007 forecasts for copper and nickel prices on rapidly accelerating Chinese growth, limited stocks and supply constraints.

The bank now expects copper to average 6,290 usd this year, up 6 pct from an earlier forecast. It also sees nickel averaging 38,767 usd per tonne in 2007, up 23 pct from its last forecast in early January.

Tin hit a new all time high of 14,450 usd a tonne on continued supply concerns from Indonesia, where a government crackdown on illegal mining is still hitting production levels.

Indonesian officials have reportedly indicated that private tin smelters look unlikely to receive export permits in the near future after being ordered to obtain new mining permits.

Indonesia is the world's second biggest tin producer.

Zinc also moved higher, trading at 3,255 usd against 3,155 usd after a large increase in the number of cancelled warrants, which represent metal booked and due to leave LME warehouses.

'With everyone talking zinc down over the past few weeks, it seems the... warrant cancellation has caught a few players off guard,' said RBC Capital in a note.

'If it turns out that European galvanizers are again short of zinc and are being forced to turn to the LME to source material, we could be in for a pretty serious reversal in zinc prices,' it added.

The new July zinc futures contract debuted on the Shanghai markets today, with the metal gaining on its first day of trade to close at 29,220 yuan a tonne.

Nickel was up at 42,800 usd a tonne against 42,200 usd, recovering from a near 11.5 pct decline last week that erased the previous week's rally to an all-time high of 48,500 usd a tonne.

'While stocks generally remain at tight levels (circa 1 day of consumption), the fact that stocks have been trending higher throughout the March month has undermined one of the key reasons to believe that the market has the potential to keep on rising,' said Jansen.

On Friday, Jinchuan Group Co, which controls 90 pct of China's nickel output, denied reports it has a large bet on lower nickel prices and that it has delivered up to 1,000 tonnes of metal to LME warehouses to cover its bet.

The reports came after the company warned earlier last week that long-term damage is being done to the nickel market by the high price.

Aluminium was down at 2,747 usd a tonne against 2,763 usd amid yet another build in LME inventories.

Lead edged down to 1,897 usd a tonne against 1,900 usd.

Barclays ups most metal price forecasts for 2007 but sees zinc at lower levels

2007-03-27T03:20:00.001-07:00

Barclays Capital has raised its nickel and tin price forecasts for the second quarter amid a bout of supply problems

However, the investment bank has shaved its estimate for zinc prices as exports from China have surged. Further, "stock inflows" of zinc into London Metal Exchange certified warehouses forced the bank to rethink its earlier estimates

"While we expect nickel prices to correct from their current record levels, delays and disruptions to bringing new supply to the market and the critically low level of LME nickel stocks continues to underpin prices," said Barclays analysts in their latest report. Critically low nickel stocks stored in LME-certified warehouses are so depleted now that the volume available to the market would not be enough for one day's worth of global consumption

Nickel is now expected to average 48,000 usd in the second quarter, 40,000 usd in the third quarter and 35,000 usd in the last three months of the year compared with previous forecasts for 36,750 usd, 30,750 usd and 27,750 usd respectively

This is the second time Barclays has raised its price forecast for nickel

Tin prices, which today struck a new all time high of 14,575 usd, are predicted to average 15,000 usd in the second quarter, 16,000 usd in the third quarter and 15,000 in the final quarter of the year from 10,800 usd, 10,000 usd and 9,500 usd respectively

"The ongoing supply side problems from Indonesia's Bangka island in an environment of positive demand and low inventories should support tin prices higher through 2007," said the report

A government crackdown on illegal small-scale mining in Indonesia, the world's second biggest producer trailing China, is still hitting production levels

Indonesian officials have reportedly indicated that private tin smelters look unlikely to receive export permits in the near future after being ordered to obtain new mining permits. However, Barclays has cut its zinc forecasts, with prices now expected to reach 3,000 usd in the second quarter, 2,800 in the third quarter and 2,500 usd in the last three months of 2007, down from a previous forecast of 4,100 usd, 3,500 usd and 3,300 usd respectively

Nickel, tin futures move to new highs

2007-03-27T03:19:00.001-07:00

London Metal Exchange nickel Monday defied expectations of a selloff, and tin continued to make fresh highs.

The fundamentals of both metals are still bullish, but industry participants are increasingly voicing concerns that nickel's bull run is looking unsustainable.

LME nickel prices are at near record highs, having risen 62% since the start of the year to peak on March 16 at $48,500 a metric ton. The bull run started last year and was driven by dwindling inventories and a lack of fresh supply amid strong demand from the stainless sector and China.

But even producers, who would usually be the last to criticize high prices, have started to express the view that the nickel market has run away with itself.

Xstrata Nickel chief executive Ian Pearce said on a conference call earlier Monday that if nickel prices "continue to go considerably higher than we're possibly going to get demand destruction in the stainless steel sector going forward, which will hit consumption."

"Yes, there's upside potential for nickel prices, but our view of the market's fundamentals relate to the long-term value of nickel going forward," he said, adding that current prices are "unsustainable in the long term."

His comments echo concerns by China's Jinchuan Group Ltd. last week that nickel prices are becoming distorted by speculative and investment fund activity. He also warned of the risk of substitution away from nickel as a result.

The market largely "shrugged off the doom and gloom," an LME dealer said, and ended the kerb session at $42,495/ton, up3% on the day after an earlier two-week low.

A slight decline in nickel stocks and unconfirmed reports by sources close to Brazil's CVRD that its Goro project won't start production until 2011 and will likely not ramp up to full capacity for a further three to four years, underpinned prices.

"The market's precariously poised and could go either way again," a London broker added.

Tin continued to establish a fresh record high of $14,575/ton in illiquid conditions, with worries over future production at mines in Indonesia attracting very light consumer and trade interest.

Licenses allowing foreign companies to develop mines were due to be issued at the end of March but a parliamentary recess will likely delay their approval, further exacerbating the already tight market.

The other base metals were relatively quiet and continued to consolidate in recent ranges.

Momentum buying lifted LME copper away from intraday low and but a slump in new home sales in the U.S. capped the market's upside and left prices to close at $6,851/ton.

S Korea to increase investments in overseas mineral exploration

2007-03-22T21:58:00.001-07:00

South Korea's Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy said Wednesday that it will increase investments to develop overseas mineral resources, such as uranium and copper mines in Africa and South America.

"South Korea imports 87% of its mineral resources, which are essential in the country's industrial development, and (we) need to increase independently developed resources overseas," said Kim Young-Joo of the Ministry in a statement.

The government considers soft coal, uranium, iron, copper, zinc and nickel as strategically important minerals and hopes to increase independently developed mining of these to at least 22%, from 16.6% last year.

Kim added that South Korean companies can't directly participate in developing resources overseas because of a lack of funds and information, so they should combine the construction of power plants with resource development projects.

In the statement, the ministry said the country's need for overseas mineral resource investment will more than triple this year to KRW583.7 billion ($621 million)

The ministry said it plans to request an increase in the government budget for development projects and possibly launch a fund to support overseas investments.

India imposes iron ore export duty

2007-03-22T21:54:00.002-07:00

The Indian government has increased the export duty on iron ore and concentrate by Rs 300 ($6.78) per tonne, a move that could hurt China's Indian iron ore imports, industry insiders said on today.

The new policy was announced yesterday by India's Union Finance Minister Shri P Chidambaram, and is regarded as the first move by the Indian government to conserve scarce national resources.

"It is shocking news to domestic steel mills," said trader surnamed Ding with Hong Kong Pioneer Metals Co. Ltd, one of largest iron ore traders in mainland China, "We were informed by our Indian suppliers yesterday night that the policy was to take immediate effect, Indian iron ore suddenly had no price advantage over Brazilian and Australian ores."

According to Ding, Pioneer Metals has been forced to temporarily halt all iron ore sales, domestic steel mills being unwilling to accept such a sudden price hike.

The company has even halted iron ore imports from Australia and Brazil, due to a dramatic surge in orders from domestic steel mills for Australian and Brazilian iron ore. He is also concerned that the new export duty will cause a price hike in iron ore spot prices from the two countries

China's Indian iron ore imports surged 9% to 74.75 million tonnes in 2006, an increase of $4.83 billion, according to statistics released by the General Administration of Customs.

Zhang Dongliang, analyst with steel consultancy Shanghai Mysteel, predicts that Indian iron ore imports will decrease significantly and there will be a hike in domestic iron ore prices. However, there has been no domestic market reaction to the policy so far

An analyst with Shanghai Haitong Securities named Gu Yaoqing said India's move is designed to favour domestic steel mills, and to shrink India's share in the global iron ore market, especially in China.

India was the third largest exporter of iron ore and concentrate to China last year, accounting for 23% of total imports, behind Australia and Brazil.

"Australia and Brazil are apparently expanding production and competing to gain a greater share in the Chinese market," he said.

Gu stated that pig iron production costs would increase by at least RMB 80 ($10.34) per tonne if steel mills use Indian iron ore, but such a cost increase would have little impact on steel product prices.

"In any case, large-scale steel mills will be little affected by the policy, their supplies are already fixed long term with Australian and Brazilian mines. However, small-scale steelmakers have to rely on Indian iron ore, since they have not secured long term contracts from Australian or Brazilian suppliers," he said.

Pioneer Metals' Ding also believes that Indian business trade will resume shortly, as Indian iron ore imports are both less time consuming and lower in freight charges.

"We will negotiate with Indian suppliers to lower the FOB price so as to offset the recent price increase," he added.

Currently, the CIF price of 63.5% Indian iron ore concentrate, the most prevailing type in Chinese market, is $84-85 per tonne.

Steel Dynamics rejoins the Mesabi Nugget iron-making venture

2007-03-22T21:54:00.001-07:00

The board of US-based steelmaker Steel Dynamics has reversed course and approved the company's participation in a $235-million iron-making project in Minnesota little more than three months after pulling out of the venture.

Participation in the project, located in the Hoyt Lakes region and known as the Mesabi Nugget venture, is contingent on financing and completion of long-term supply agreements to ensure iron concentrate supplies needed for iron-nugget production, the company said in a statement Thursday.

SDI announced in November 2006 that negotiations with four other partners in Mesabi Nugget had broken down due to complexities involved in the multi-party arrangement. Kobe Steel and Steel Dynamics have now formed a new legal entity to develop the project.

The new arrangement calls for Steel Dynamics to hold a majority stake in the project and to be responsible for the construction and operation of the facility. Kobe will provide a technology license, engineering services, proprietary equipment and technical support to the project. The initial production module is designed to have an a production capacity of 500,000 mt/year of iron nuggets. Additional production modules may be built following successful operation of the first module. No time frame for construction and startup was divulged.

Steel Dynamics indicated that it expects to consume most of the initial output from the venture.

Melt tests using nuggets produced by a pilot plant have demonstrated that iron nuggets melt more efficiently in electric-arc furnaces than traditional pig iron, SDI said.

Cleveland-Cliffs to delay annual report filing with SEC citing revenue recognition probe

2007-03-22T21:53:00.002-07:00

Cleveland-Cliffs Inc., which makes iron ore pellets used to produce steel, said Friday it will delay filing its annual report due to a probe into the company's revenue recognition practices.

The delay results from an internal probe into a specific contract revenue accounting item in the fourth quarter. The probe was triggered by an anonymous call into the company's ethics hot line. On Wednesday, Cleveland-Cliffs' audit committee determined the allegation was unfounded.

However, an outside audit by Deloitte & Touche continues and prevented the company from filing its annual report on Thursday. The review concerns cash payments for sales out of the company's ore stockpiles under a customer contract, but – at the customer's request – the ore was not delivered, Cleveland-Cliffs said in a statement.

As a result, Cleveland-Cliffs said its fourth quarter results may be subject to revision.

In late February, the company reported earnings of $1.59 per share on revenue of $622.6 million.

Shares of Cleveland-Cliffs slipped 30 cents to $56.44 in morning trading on the New York Stock Exchange.

No bidders for Sverdlovsk iron ore deposit

2007-03-22T21:53:00.001-07:00

The auction for the Vyiskoye iron ore deposit in the Sverdlovsk region was called off because there were no bidders, a source at the natural resources agency for the Ural Federal District told Interfax.

The auction, originally scheduled for March 15, had been postponed until March 29 to allow more time for potential bidders to step forward. The deadline for applications to participate in the auction was moved back to March 6, as no applications had been submitted by the original deadline of February 6.

The starting price for the 20-year license is 1 million rubles.

The Vyiskoye deposit has C1 and C2 reserves of respectively 4.532 million tonnes and 349,000 tonnes of iron ore.

Brazilian iron ore giant to boost investment in China

2007-03-22T21:52:00.001-07:00

Brazilian iron ore giant Companhia Vale de Rio Doce (CVRD) plans to invest 6.5 billion U.S. dollars this year to support its expansion in China, said the company.

The investment will go into the company's nickel processing and coal mining activities in China, and also into equipment purchases, the CVRD's chief executive officer Roger Agnelli told Xinhua in an interview during his visit to Beijing this week.

"The economic outlook in China is positive and so is the investment environment and government planning," said Agnelli. "China is a good place to invest money."

The company will launch a 62 million U.S. dollar project in northeastern coastal city Dalian in July next year, according to Agnelli, which will churn out 32,000 tons of nickel products each year.

Agnelli pointed out that the new product will make the CVRD the second largest manufacturer of nickel products in China.

The CVRD produced 247,000 tons of nickel products last year. Output is expected to rise to 500,000 tons by 2010, driven by strong demand, said Agnelli.

The company is also considering expanding its investment in China's coal mines, with an anthracite plant and a coke project already launched in the country, he said.

The CVRD also intends to buy more equipment in China for use in power plants, ports and railways in Brazil, according to Agnelli.

As the world's largest iron ore producer and exporter, the company is in contact with China's Shougang Group, and hopes to provide pellet powder for China's leading steel producer.

"We can be a partner for any Chinese steel producer who wants to invest in Brazil," said Agnelli.

CVRD's iron ore output will reach 300 million tons this year, and a third of it is likely to be sold in China, as the country's steel production figures continue to sizzle.

Latest figures show China's crude steel output reached 422.7 million tons last year, 19.7 percent up year on year.

Iron ore miner CVRD's 4Q profit up 28 percent; 2006 profit soars 29 percent

2007-03-22T21:51:00.003-07:00

Profits at CVRD, the world's largest iron ore miner, soared 28 percent in the fourth quarter amid seemingly insatiable global demand for the raw ingredient used to make steel, the company said Wednesday. The miner's profits for all of 2006 rose 29 percent compared with the year before.

Companhia Vale do Rio Doce SA earned 3.4 billion Brazilian reals ($1.8 billion) in the October-December period, or 1.4 reals (66 cents) per share, compared with 2.6 billion reals ($1.2 billion), or 1.2 reals (57 cents) per share, in the same period a year ago.

The result, however, fell short of CVRD's record quarterly earnings posted in the third quarter of 2006, when profits hit 4 billion reals ($1.9 billion), skyrocketing 47 percent compared with the same period a year earlier.

For all of 2006, profits were 13.4 billion reals ($6.7 billion) compared with 10.4 billion reals ($5 billion) for 2005. On a per share basis, CVRD earned 5.56 reals ($2.65) in 2006 compared to 4.54 reals ($2.16) in 2005.

Revenue surged 81 percent to 16.7 billion reals ($7.9 billion) during the quarter, compared with 9.2 billion reals in the fourth quarter of 2005. Annual revenues for 2006 stood at 46.7 billion reals ($22.1 billion), up from 35.4 billion reals in 2005.

CVRD has benefited handsomely from iron ore price increases it managed negotiate with global steel makers due to crushing demand, much of it from China.

The company last year purchased Canada's Inco Ltd., the world's second largest nickel miner, for $16.8 billion. And last month, CVRD announced it will buy Australia's AMCI Holdings Australia Pty for $661 million in cash, moving to boost its presence in coal mining.

The purchase of Inco made the Brazilian company the world's second-largest mining company, after Anglo-Australian BHP Billiton Ltd. Nickel is used in everything from stainless steel to cell phone batteries, and analysts praised the deal for helping to diversify CVRD.

CVRD said its purchase of AMCI is aimed at continuing the company's drive to diversify its mining operations.

The company's American depository shares rose 14 cents, or 0.4 percent, to $34.27 on the New York Stock Exchange before the results were announced Wednesday.

Brazil's Vale do Rio Doce is China's largest supplier of iron ore

2007-03-22T21:51:00.001-07:00

Brazilian mining giant Companhia do Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) became the largest supplier of iron ore to China in 2006, said the company's financial director during the presentation of the company's results Thursday in Sao Paulo.

Last year CVRD sold 77.8 million tons of iron ore to China, or 37.8 percent more than in 2005, which accounted for almost a quarter (23.2 percent) of the total bought by the Chinese in 2006.

The financial director, Fábio de Oliveira Barbosa said that the target for this year was to reach 100 million tons in sales to China.

China was the main destination for CVRD's iron ore last year having absorbed 28.5 percent of a total of 272 million tons.

The second-largest buyer of CVRD's iron ore was Brazil itself (17.1 percent), followed by Japan (10.5 percent).

Asked about a possible fall in Chinese demand, following attempts by the Chinese government to slow growth of the economy, Oliveira Barbosa said that the company had, "not seen any fall in sales."

He added that the Chinese economy was expected to post growth of around 10 percent until 2008, and would therefore need "until the end of the decade, additional volumes (of ore) that are quite significant, contributing to maintaining global demand under pressure."

CVRD's profit in 2006 was 13.4 billion reals (US$6.3 billion).

Sinosteel ceases iron ore imports in duty protest

2007-03-22T21:50:00.001-07:00

Following India's decision to levy heavy export duties on its iron ore exports, China's second largest iron ore importer Sinosteel Corporation has halted all imports from one of its major trade partners. This announcement came a week after India set a new 300 rupees (US$7) levy per ton of iron ore exported from March 1.

Although Sinosteel's management were not reachable for comment, this is the latest reaction from China's stunned steel industry, 100 buyers from which convened on Tuesday to draft an appropriate response to the new duties.

The common view was to appeal to the Indian government to impose a fairer scheme before its Parliament fully approves the duties two weeks from now, the International Financial News reported on Thursday.

Sinosteel's move is a punishing one since it is the first to react to the duties in a real manner despite being China's biggest importer of Indian ore, with annual imports reaching 10 million tons.

A report by the China International Capital Corporation Limited (CICC) stated that Indian iron ore would lose its price competitiveness, forcing Chinese buyers to rely more on Brazil and Australia, which also saw a downturn in exports after levying similar duties.

2006 saw China import 74 million tons of iron ore from India, close to a fifth of its total imports.

The CICC report continued to say that the price hike would have only a limited effect on China's steel industry due to a worldwide rise in steel prices.

After rising by 9.94 percent over 2006 to 4,055 yuan (US$506.8) per ton this February, the National Development and Reform Commission has forewarned about further rises, likely to occur in March.

Zijin mulls base metals spin-off

2007-03-22T21:47:00.000-07:00

Zijin Mining Group, one of the mainland's largest gold miners, might spin off its growing base metals business to give a more appropriate valuation for its gold and base metals operations, chairman Chen Jinghe said.

Zijin, which last week reported a 142 per cent jump in full-year profit to 1.7 billion yuan, was also looking to tap into other precious metals, especially platinum and palladium, Mr Chen said.

The Fujian-based company transformed from a pure gold producer when it went public in late 2003 into a metals conglomerate, a move that has helped to drive rapid earnings growth amid soaring metals prices.

Profit contribution from base metals, including copper, zinc and iron concentrates, accounted for almost 30 per cent of Zijin's turnover last year and almost 50 per cent of its net profit, a sharp difference from 2003 when more than 90 per cent of turnover and profit came from gold.

The diversification into base metals has raised questions as to whether the company still deserves a high valuation as base metals producers historically trade at much lower multiples than those of pure gold companies.

Zijin is trading at 23 times this year forecast earnings, based on Friday's closing price, while Jiangxi Copper, the mainland's largest copper producer, is trading at only five times earnings. Hunan Nonferrous Metals, the mainland's largest tungsten producer, is trading at 15 times earnings.

"A spin-off of the base metals business is possible, although there is no concrete plan at present," Mr Chen said, adding that Zijin would strive to keep gold as its main business.

"We'll try to keep gold or precious metals as our major profit contributor and maintain it at a level of more than 50 per cent. If not, gold should be kept as the largest single business compared with other metals," Mr Chen said.

Mr Chen said the company would continue looking for attractive growth opportunities in China and overseas in both base and precious metals.

Some analysts have warned that Zijin's diversification into base metals will mean its earnings will become more volatile.

"We believe that while metal prices are high, Zijin's strategy of aggressive overseas growth and expansion into base metals will continue to drive earnings and cash flows," said Merrill Lynch analyst Alexander Latzer. "However, this is a bull market strategy. When metal prices ease over the next few years, as we forecast, earnings will become more volatile."

Base metals rebound on LME, aluminium prices up 4 percent

2007-02-15T01:43:00.001-08:00

London Metal Exchange aluminium prices surged Tuesday to levels last seen in late January, driven by escalating tensions in Guinea, with traders expecting further upside as political uncertainty there continues.

Three-month aluminium rose to a PM kerb of $2,820 a metric ton, up nearly 4% from Monday to prices last seen Jan. 25.

Martial law in Guinea and the bullish tone across the whole base metals complex helped boost aluminium prices, which are likely to rise further in the near term, said an LME trader.

Guinea is a leading producer of bauxite, which is an essential component used to produce aluminium.

Tuesday, Guinean President Lansana Conte instituted martial law until Feb. 23 after days of deadly protests. The protests were triggered over the weekend following Conte's appointment of a close ally from his Cabinet as prime minister, a move the opposition said sidestepped a power-sharing agreement.

Many major companies have been affected by the violence, with Alcoa Inc. saying Tuesday that its production of bauxite at its CBG operations had been halted and Rusal saying production had been cut at its Friguia alumina refinery. Rio Tinto PLC said it has evacuated 16 of its staff from the country.

In addition, market speculation of a possible takeover of U.S. aluminium giant Alcoa by Rio Tinto or BHP Billiton was another supportive factor for prices, the LME trader said.

However, strength extended across the entire base metals complex. Copper prices climbed roughly 4% to a PM kerb of $5,749/ton triggered by a decrease in LME copper stocks by 2,800 tons to 213,250 tons.

Michael Widmer of Calyon also pointed to bullish macroeconomic data out of Germany as adding to base metal price support, particularly for copper.

The German Center for European Economic Research's business expectations index rose for the third straight month to +2.9 points in February from -3.6 points in January, signaling a pickup in economic activity in around 6 months time.

Three-month nickel prices jumped roughly 3% to a PM kerb of $36,000/ton "buoyed by gains reflected across the rest of the complex," Barclays Capital said.

China: 600 new metal deposit found in Tibet plateau

2007-02-15T01:42:00.003-08:00

There are more than 600 new sites of copper, iron, lead and zinc ore deposits in China's Qinghai-Tibet plateau, which if exploited, could ease the country's shortage of mineral resources, a government agency said Wednesday.

The plateau is estimated to have 30 million-40 million metric tons of copper resources, 40 million tons of lead and zinc resources and billions of tons of iron, according to the China Geological Survey, an agency responsible for mineral exploration under the Ministry of Land and Resources.

The agency has been surveying the area for the past seven years to look for mineral reserves.

"The figures are only conservative estimates and real reserves amounts can be much larger," said Zhuang Yuxun, director of the CGS's Department Of Geological Investigation.

New discoveries of copper deposits in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau should be able to raise the country's copper concentrate output by 30%, or 250,000 tons, a year, the agency said.

Exploitation of three of the plateau's copper mines in Qulong, Pulang and Yangla regions has already begun, Zhuang said.

"The locations of newly-discovered copper reserves are close to the Qinghai-Tibet railway so the new supply can come to the market in two to three years," he added.

With transport infrastructure in place and private investors' rising interest in developing mines, it won't be too long before the reserves can help to alleviate the country's need for copper, Zhuang said.

The CGS also discovered three large high-grade iron ore deposits in the area, including a rich one in the center of the plateau with reserves topping 500 million tons.

The iron content of the ore deposits is at 55%-70%, versus the country's average level of 23%-24%, Zhuang said.

About 90% of China's current iron ore supply is low grade.

However, Zhuang said it will take time to see actual supply coming in "as locations of iron reserves are in more remote areas."

The Qinghai-Tibet plateau in China's far west is at an average height of 4,300 meters above sea level, totaling an area of 2.6 million square kilometers.

It covers most of the Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai province, and part of Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu provinces and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

The Chinese government discovered the rich resources on the plateau decades ago, but mineral exploration stopped, partly because supply was enough to meet the country's demand then.

However, exploration for mineral resources is firmly back on the government's agenda now as the country has been increasingly relying on mineral imports to feed its economic growth.

Zinifex sees no cost from damaged ship

2007-02-15T01:42:00.001-08:00

Zinc miner Zinifex does not expect any material cost after its ship MV Wunma became stuck and damaged in heavy seas as a result of Cyclone Nelson last week.

It also said that the incident would mean only moderate delays to its concentrate deliveries.

"Subject to receiving all the necessary approvals and certification, we are confident that the Wunma will return to service by early next week," Zinifex said in a statement.

"On this basis, we do not expect any disruption to production at Century Mine and only a moderate delay to our concentrate deliveries.

"Accordingly we do not expect that there will be a material cost associated with this incident."

The ship was carrying 5,000 tonnes of zinc concentrate worth $US15 million ($A19.32 million) when it got into distress in the Gulf of Carpentaria during Cyclone Nelson.

The miner said the electrical system of the vessel needs repairs, but that they are expected to be finished by the weekend and it sustained no significant damage.

The cargo is also in good condition, with little water damage, and Zinifex said it will be recovered and sold.

The miner confirmed previously that production at its Century open-pit zinc mine in north-west Queensland was continuing unaffected by the incident, which led to the crew of 10 being rescued and the ship anchored.

Zinifex's shares rose 65 cents or four per cent to $16.35 on Wednesday.

Copper edges down as stocks rise but other metals climb

2007-02-15T01:41:00.000-08:00

Copper retraced yesterday's strong gains as LME stocks edged higher, although prices continued to be underpinned by strong demand levels.

Copper stocks were up by 1,650 tonnes to 214,900 tonnes, said daily LME inventory data.

At 2.01 pm, LME copper for three-month delivery was down at 5,730 usd a tonne having risen 279 usd to settle at 5,749 yesterday.

"Fund buying is coming back in and copper is rising," said Standard Bank analyst Mike Skinner, adding that today's dip was "to be expected" because of profit taking.

While copper was moderately lower, all of the other base metals' prices were higher.

"Given the strong tone in the rest of the group, we don't think (copper)prices will stay down for long," said Man Financial analyst Ed Meir.

Aluminium prices jumped again as market players mulled supply threats from Guinea, West Africa, where worker unions resumed strike action.

The renewed strike disrupted bauxite mining, and bauxite and alumina shipments by Guinea, the world's leading exporter of the ore.

Aluminium was up at 2,845 usd a tonne against 2,820 usd at the close yesterday.

In other metals, tin extended gains from Monday after Indonesian tin producing company PT Koba Tin suspended shipments from Bangka, Indonesia, following an investigation into alleged illegal mining.

Tin was up at 12,770 usd a tonne against 12,595 usd at the close yesterday.

Lead was up at 1,700 usd a tonne against 1,675 usd at the close yesterday. Zinc was up at 3,225 usd against 3,220 usd while nickel rose to 37,350 usd against 36,000 usd.

LME nickel, tin extend gains; Copper down

2007-02-15T01:40:00.001-08:00

London Metal Exchange nickel took center stage Wednesday rising nearly 5% driven by falling inventories, but analysts say they will keep a close watch on whether Asia succumbs to major bouts of profit-taking.

Three-month nickel reached a more than one-week-old high at $37,800 a metric ton Wednesday triggered by an increase in canceled warrants and falling stock levels, said Michael Skinner of Standard Bank in London.

Canceled warrants – or material accounted for and to be drawn down at a later date – soared to 54% Wednesday from Tuesday's 15%, leaving just 1,806 tons available to the market. This is less than half a day's worth of global nickel consumption.

An owner of metal in LME warehouses holds a warrant. Some traders suggest that nickel warrants are tightly held by one particular market participant. This player can move its metal on and off warrant in warehouses and have some control over nickel stocks – and prices – as a result.

Profit-taking at the top of the price ranges is to be expected, said Skinner, but "we haven't seen as much selling overnight in Asia" and will have to see whether this continues.

Meanwhile, three-month aluminium prices rose roughly 1% to a PM kerb of $2,828/ton on technical buying as political uncertainty in Guinea continued.

Guinea is a leading producer of bauxite, an essential component in producing aluminium.

Guinean President Lansana Conte has imposed martial law until Feb. 23 after days of violent protests. The demonstrations were triggered over the weekend following Conte's appointment of a close ally from his Cabinet as prime minister, a move the opposition said sidestepped a power-sharing agreement.

However, an increase in aluminium stocks by 2,925 tons to 759,050 tons Wednesday capped gains. Aluminium inventories have climbed roughly 9% since the start of 2007.

In other metals, three-month copper traded down 0.5% to a PM kerb of $5,720/ton driven by a large increase in copper stocks by 1,650 tons Wednesday to 214,900 tons. Copper inventories have increased roughly 11% since the start of 2007.

Oil price weakness as well as easing strength in the euro added to copper price pressure.

Three-month zinc suddenly jumped in afternoon trade due to an erroneous trade by one participant, triggering stops and pushing prices sharply higher, according to one LME broker. Zinc rose roughly 2% to a PM kerb of $3,310/ton from Tuesday.

Earlier Wednesday, three-month tin prices hit a new record high of $12,800/ton before retreating modestly to a PM kerb of $12,695/ton.

"The main driver for prices continues to be uncertainty on the supply side stemming from Indonesia's Bangka island," said Kevin Norrish of Barclays Capital.

Indonesia recently shutdown its private mining and smelting operations on Bangka island, where the country's largest tin reserve is located. Earlier this week, PT Koba Tin declared force majeure to its tin customers on shipments and deliveries of the metal.

Meanwhile, Switzerland's Glencore International AG Tuesday demanded compensation from Bolivia's government for nationalizing a tin smelter as part of President Evo Morales declared ambition to gain greater control of the country's mineral wealth and refineries.

Conductive Oxide Coatings to Defrost Windscreens

2007-02-09T22:46:00.001-08:00

Researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Surface Engineering and Thin Films IST, Brunswick, Germany, have developed a process to produce transparent, electrically conductive oxide coatings, which could prove ideal for clearing frosted-over windscreens on cold winter mornings.

In a unique approach, the researchers combined mid-frequency magnetron sputtering with a chemical reaction. The glass substrate is heated in a reactor and coated and then, in the course of magnetron sputtering, accelerated ions of inert gas ‘shoot’ atoms out of a zinc-aluminium plate. The metal atoms are deposited on the substrate in a vacuum.

For this coating to become both electrically conductive and transparent, the zinc needs to be oxidised, so that the aluminium and zinc atoms bond together. ‘We are now working to produce contacts for thin-film solar cells’, comments Dr Bernd Szyszka of the IST. ‘Transparent and electrically conductive coatings are also needed for flat monitor screens and electrically switchable window panes for buildings’.

This brought about the idea for the windshields. ‘A prerequisite for use of these coatings systems’, Szyszka continues, ‘is to convert the operating voltage for cars from 12 to 24 or even 42 volts’ - a conversion that is expected over the next two to four years to improve the configuration of electronic systems in motor vehicles.

Technically, the coatings can also function at low power, but manufacturing costs are then extremely high. With a higher voltage, thinner coatings suffice - which can be produced at substantially lower cost.

The advantage of the IST process is that it is exceptionally stable in operation, and the coatings can be applied rapidly and inexpensively. The IST researchers are presently using an industrial scale plant to coat glass substrates of up to 0.6 to 1m in size.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles

2007-02-09T22:45:00.001-08:00

Nanophase Technologies Corporation today announced the availability of a new line of high purity zinc oxide nanoparticles primarily targeted for electronic, personal care and other applications requiring UV protection combined with a very high degree of transparency. The new product line provides essentially spherical zinc oxide nanoparticles that are approximately 20nm narrow particle size distributions, while retaining their discrete non-aggregating properties. Nanophase produces three mean product sizes 60, 35 and 20nm. All product lines offer high particle and surface chemical purity and are manufactured to ISO-9001, USP, and cGMP standards.

"We believe that there are a variety of applications for these smaller nanocrystalline materials," stated Dr. Don Freed, Nanophase's vice-president of business development. "It has been demonstrated that different size nanoparticles of the same material may have distinctly different physical properties and behave differently in applications. We intend to expand our product offerings and plan to offer small versions of additional oxide products in the near future".

The new zinc oxide products are available as dry powders or as stable dispersions in a variety of solvents, both aqueous and organic. Surface treatment using Nanophase's patented Discrete Particle Encapsulation (DPE) process and engineered to meet specific customer applications such as transparent coatings designed to protect against ultraviolet and infrared radiation (similar in concept to the Company's already successful sunscreen products, but designed for industrial uses) is also possible.

The zinc oxide products are also suited to electronics applications such as capacitors, varistors, photoprinting and electrophotography due to extremely low levels of heavy metal impurities. Other intermediate particle sizes can also be manufactured due to the inherent flexibility of the PVS process allows the company to manufacture various intermediate particle sizes to meet customer-specific applications.

Speedier Friction Stir Welds

2007-02-09T22:44:00.003-08:00

An advanced friction stir welding tool has been developed by TWI that achieves an increase in travel speed of 150%. The new development was announced at the recent meeting on 'Friction stir welding of transport structures' held at the end of September.

Project sponsors welcomed the considerable increase in welding speed, which is achieved while maintaining or improving the existing high weld quality of the process.

Welding trials have been conducted on the normally difficult to weld aerospace Al-Zn alloy 7075-T7351. So far, a welding speed of more than 400mm per minute has been achieved when making butt joints in 6.35mm thick material. This represents an increase of at least 150% on the speed achievable with current commercially available friction stir welding tools. This tool also produces a higher weld nugget hardness, leading to higher tensile strength values. Even higher speeds are expected by changing the tool path about the axis of rotation. Trials are continuing

Corrosion Predicting Tool for Australia

2007-02-09T22:44:00.001-08:00

Introduction

The effects of corrosion are well known and range from the obvious, the rust we see on motor vehicles and its effect on steel constructions such as the Sydney Harbour Bridge, to the lesser known economic costs to the community such as the short lifespan of farm fencing experienced in some parts of Australia. In the battle against corrosion, which costs Australia about 2% of GDP annually, scientists from CSIRO in collaboration with the Industrial Galvanisers Corporation (IGC) have developed a new online tool that pinpoints corrosion hot spots and offers industry a more accurate prediction of the effects of corrosion on steel and galvanised products.
Corrosion Mapping System

The corrosion mapping system (CMS) is based on the corrosion map of Australia developed by CSIRO, which estimates the corrosion rate in every locality of the country, including all 14,700 towns and suburbs, together with case history data of performance information about coatings collated by IGC during the past 25 years. “CMS incorporates a large amount of this data with the corrosion maps to provide an exciting new tool for predicting the corrosion rates of steel, galvanised and zinc coated products used in Australia,” says John Robinson, Group Development Manager for IGC.
Geographic Information Systems

Using geographic information systems (GIS), a corrosion model based on both statistical and process simulation was developed at CSIRO Built Environment in collaboration with its Infrastructure Systems Engineering and Sustainable Materials Engineering teams. “The map incorporates a corrosion model based on climatic conditions such as moisture, prevailing winds, salinity and pollution developed during many years of research by CSIRO,” says Stephen Pahos, Business Development Manager for CSIRO Infrastructure Systems Engineering (CISE). The model makes the following simple assumptions:

· Corrosion is influenced by two basic factors, salinity and moisture (time of wetness or TOW)

· If industrial pollution is neglected, then distance from the coast, topography, prevailing winds and the type of coast (surf or bay) will influence salinity levels

· Moisture is basically influenced by climatic parameters such as relative humidity and temperature.

The TOW, or the time a metal surface is assumed to be wet, is calculated from relative humidity and temperature records in 136 Bureau of Meteorology sites using a method suggested by the International Standards Organisation. An Australian-wide surface model of TOW is constructed from the 136 values using a geo-statistical technique called 'Kriging.' Figure 1 illustrates the resulting surface model for TOW.
Estimating Corrosion Rate

The corrosion rate in each of more than 14,700 localities, including towns and suburbs in Australia, is then estimated by:

· Representing each locality as a point defined by a pair of co-ordinates (longitude and latitude)

· TOW at each locality is estimated from the surface model shown in figure 1

· The amount of salt transported to each locality from the coast is simulated, figure 2

· A surface model of corrosion rate is derived from the corrosion estimates in the 14,700+ localities, figure 3.

Using CSIRO's existing Building Information Exchange (BIEX) internet portal, and the integrated corrosion information system, corrosion maps and models can be accessed online easily and in a cost effective manner. Using the internet, users can ‘click’ on to a region in Australia from a master map and have the degradation profile for various materials reported back in microns of material lost per year. It is also possible to add value to these models and maps by coupling them with service life estimation and material selection applications.
Materials Design for Location

This information is important to ensure that the correct materials are being used for each application. For example, it could be possible to order a steel section coated with ‘x microns’ of coating to get a given life expectancy in a particular region of the nation. This type of approach to material selection will see materials being designed for use, saving on raw materials consumption, pollution and costs associated with premature degradation of assets.
Other Uses for the Corrosion Mapping System

The CMS is currently being used by IGC to manage its coating guarantee programmes for its galvanised coatings and galvanised steel products. IGC offers comprehensive durability guarantees for specific projects in which its coating guarantees range from 15 to 50 years, depending on the project environment and client requirements.

“The expanding demand for performance guarantees on our products means CSIRO’s CMS is very attractive,” says Robinson. “It will help IGC manage its own coating guarantee projects and provide design professionals with real time corrosion data.”

Robinson also believes there are environmental and community benefits arising from this development. “It will give the specifying community access to environmental sustainability materials and construction information, including the greenhouse contribution of various construction materials,” he says.
Materials Specifications

In conjunction with the corrosion mapping programme, IGC is involved, though its industry association, the Galvanisers Association of Australia, in the development of a durability branding programme for steel products, particularly those used in construction.

Many steel construction products and builders hardware are not adequately protected from corrosion and do not give acceptable life in service. “This (the durability branding) will allow end users and specifiers to quickly identify the durability of a coated steel product through a certified ‘star rating’ system,” says Robinson.

As the demand for reliable, long term durability for steel construction products increases, and designers become more accountable for material durability performance, using the durability branding in conjunction with corrosion mapping will allow both consumers and designers to determine maintenance-free life in real time, in any environment with a high degree of confidence.
Application to Other Countries

The system can be applied to any country, assuming the data is available. CSIRO are currently working with IGC in South East Asia providing technical support for construction durability programmes in Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia and Thailand. The corrosion mapping technology is expected to be expanded into these areas to assist in improving the durability of infrastructure and construction, where in the past, quality standards have led to short economic infrastructure life.
Availability of the CMS System

The CMS for IGC will be made available through its website, which is currently hosting a demonstration version of the CMS programme in the technical section of the site. In addition to the durability information, additional modules will provide information about inground corrosion of steel and environmental sustainability data for a range of construction materials.

The cost to industry will be relatively small. CSIRO is planning to create a web service to deliver the accumulated knowledge of its databases. During the next few years it will broaden its service with more and more data being delivered as people want it through the internet. CSIRO intends to offer its service on a subscription basis in which consumers can access the information after paying an annual fee.
Concluding Remarks

While there are internet based databases that will provide some corrosion data, CSIRO believes its CMS is the first online corrosion mapping system in the world. “The cost of the battle against corrosion in Australia is significant. It is a battle that is wearing away the infrastructure of our economy,” says Pahos. “Applying this type of technology to help reduce the effects of corrosion will significantly boost Australia’s competitiveness in the world.”

The benefits to the Australian economy have been focused on environmental and cost issues and CSIRO believes there is no reason to assume that the same benefits could not be realised in UK and European environments.

Aluminium-Zinc Alloy Sheet

2007-02-09T22:43:00.004-08:00

NKK and NKK Steel Sheet and Strip Corp have jointly developed a new type of 55% Al-Zn alloy steel sheet. Called ‘Super Genius’, it offers corrosion resistance twice that of the previous ‘Genius’ product. It is manufactured by applying an organic/inorganic composite coating that effects a remedial action on cracks created during manufacture.

Nanomaterials and Their Applications

2007-02-09T22:43:00.003-08:00

Nanomaterials (nanocrystalline materials) are materials possessing grain sizes on the order of a billionth of a meter. They manifest extremely fascinating and useful properties, which can be exploited for a variety of structural and non-structural applications.
Applications

Since nanomaterials possess unique, beneficial chemical, physical, and mechanical properties, they can be used for a wide variety of applications. These applications include, but are not limited to, the following:
Next-Generation Computer Chips

The microelectronics industry has been emphasising miniaturisation, whereby the circuits, such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors, are reduced in size. By achieving a significant reduction in their size, the microprocessors, which contain these components, can run much faster, thereby enabling computations at far greater speeds. However, there are several technological impediments to these advancements, including lack of the ultrafine precursors to manufacture these components; poor dissipation of tremendous amount of heat generated by these microprocessors due to faster speeds; short mean time to failures (poor reliability), etc. Nanomaterials help the industry break these barriers down by providing the manufacturers with nanocrystalline starting materials, ultra-high purity materials, materials with better thermal conductivity, and longer-lasting, durable interconnections (connections between various components in the microprocessors).
Kinetic Energy (KE) Penetrators with Enhanced Lethality

The Department of Defense (DoD) is currently using depleted-uranium (DU) projectiles (penetrators) for its lethality against hardened targets and enemy armoured vehicles. However, DU has residual radioactivity, and hence, it is toxic (carcinogenic), explosive, and lethal to the personnel who use them. However, some of the important reasons for the continued use of DU penetrators are that they possess a unique self-sharpening mechanism on impact with a target, and the lack of suitable non-explosive, non-hazardous replacement for DU. Nanocrystalline tungsten heavy alloys lend themselves to such a self-sharpening mechanisms because of their unique deformation characteristics, such as grain-boundary sliding. Hence, nanocrystalline tungsten heavy alloys and composites are being evaluated as potential candidates to replace DU penetrators.
Better Insulation Materials

Nanocrystalline materials synthesised by the sol-gel technique result in foam like structures called "aerogels." These aerogels are porous and extremely lightweight; yet, they can loads equivalent to 100 times their weight. Aerogels are composed of three-dimensional, continuous networks of particles with air (or any other fluid, such as a gas) trapped at their interstices. Since they are porous and air is trapped at the interstices, aerogels are currently being used for insulation in offices, homes, etc. By using aerogels for insulation, heating and cooling bills are drastically reduced, thereby saving power and reducing the attendant environmental pollution. They are also being used as materials for "smart " windows, which darken when the sun is too bright (just as in changeable lenses in prescription spectacles and sunglasses) and they lighten themselves, when the sun is not shining too brightly.
Phosphors for High-Definition TV

The resolution of a television, or a monitor, depends greatly on the size of the pixel. These pixels are essentially made of materials called "phosphors," which glow when struck by a stream of electrons inside the cathode ray tube (CRT). The resolution improves with a reduction in the size of the pixel, or the phosphors. Nanocrystalline zinc selenide, zinc sulfide, cadmium sulfide, and lead telluride synthesised by the sol-gel techniques are candidates for improving the resolution of monitors. The use of nanophosphors is envisioned to reduce the cost of these displays so as to render high-definition televisions (HDTVs) and personal computers affordable to be purchased by an average household in the U. S.
Low-Cost Flat-Panel Displays

Flat-panel displays represent a huge market in the laptop (portable) computers industry. However, Japan is leading this market, primarily because of its research and development efforts on the materials for such displays. By synthesising nanocrystalline phosphors, the resolution of these display devices can be greatly enhanced, and the manufacturing costs can be significantly reduced. Also, the flat-panel displays constructed out of nanomaterials possess much higher brightness and contrast than the conventional ones owing to their enhanced electrical and magnetic properties.
Tougher and Harder Cutting Tools

Cutting tools made of nanocrystalline materials, such as tungsten carbide, tantalum carbide, and titanium carbide, are much harder, much more wear-resistant, erosion-resistant, and last longer than their conventional (large-grained) counterparts. They also enable the manufacturer to machine various materials much faster, thereby increasing productivity and significantly reducing manufacturing costs. Also, for the miniaturisation of microelectronic circuits, the industry needs microdrills (drill bits with diameter less than the thickness of an average human hair or 100 µm) with enhanced edge retention and far better wear resistance. Since nanocrystalline carbides are much stronger, harder, and wear-resistant, they are currently being used in these microdrills.
Elimination of Pollutants

Nanocrystalline materials possess extremely large grain boundaries relative to their grain size. Hence, nanomaterials are very active in terms of their of chemical, physical, and mechanical properties. Due to their enhanced chemical activity, nanomaterials can be used as catalysts to react with such noxious and toxic gases as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide in automobile catalytic converters and power generation equipment to prevent environmental pollution arising from burning gasoline and coal.
High Energy Density Batteries

Conventional and rechargeable batteries are used in almost all applications that require electric power. These applications include automobiles, laptop computers, electric vehicles, next-generation electric vehicles (NGEV) to reduce environmental pollution, personal stereos, cellular phones, cordless phones, toys, and watches. The energy density (storage capacity) of these batteries is quite low requiring frequent recharging. The life of conventional and rechargeable batteries is also low. Nanocrystalline materials synthesised by sol-gel techniques are candidates for separator plates in batteries because of their foam-like (aerogel) structure, which can hold considerably more energy than their conventional counterparts. Furthermore, nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries made of nanocrystalline nickel and metal hydrides are envisioned to require far less frequent recharging and to last much longer because of their large grain boundary (surface) area and enhanced physical, chemical, and mechanical properties.
High-Power Magnets

The strength of a magnet is measured in terms of coercivity and saturation magnetisation values. These values increase with a decrease in the grain size and an increase in the specific surface area (surface area per unit volume of the grains) of the grains. It has been shown that magnets made of nanocrystalline yttrium-samarium-cobalt grains possess very unusual magnetic properties due to their extremely large surface area. Typical applications for these high-power rare-earth magnets include quieter submarines, automobile alternators, land-based power generators, motors for ships, ultra-sensitive analytical instruments, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medical diagnostics.
High-Sensitivity Sensors

Sensors employ their sensitivity to the changes in various parameters they are designed to measure. The measured parameters include electrical resistivity, chemical activity, magnetic permeability, thermal conductivity, and capacitance. All of these parameters depend greatly on the microstructure (grain size) of the materials employed in the sensors. A change in the sensor’s environment is manifested by the sensor material’s chemical, physical, or mechanical characteristics, which is exploited for detection. For instance, a carbon monoxide sensor made of zirconium oxide (zirconia) uses its chemical stability to detect the presence of carbon monoxide. In the event of carbon monoxide’s presence, the oxygen atoms in zirconium oxide react with the carbon in carbon monoxide to partially reduce zirconium oxide. This reaction triggers a change in the sensor’s characteristics, such as conductivity (or resistivity) and capacitance. The rate and the extent of this reaction are greatly increased by a decrease in the grain size. Hence, sensors made nanocrystalline materials are extremely sensitive to the change in their environment. Typical applications for sensors made out of nanocrystalline materials are smoke detectors, ice detectors on aircraft wings, automobile engine performance sensor, etc.
Automobiles with Greater Fuel Efficiency

Currently, automobile engines waste considerable amounts of gasoline, thereby contributing to environmental pollution by not completely combusting the fuel. A conventional spark plug is not designed to burn the gasoline completely and efficiently. This problem is compounded by defective, or worn-out, spark plug electrodes. Since nanomaterials are stronger, harder, and much more wear-resistant and erosion-resistant, they are presently being envisioned to be used as spark plugs. These electrodes render the spark plugs longer-lasting and combust fuel far more efficiently and completely. A radically new spark plug design called the "railplug" is also in the prototype stages. This railplug uses the technology derived from the "railgun," which is a spin-off of the popular Star Wars defense program. However, these railplugs generate much more powerful sparks (with an energy density of approximately 1 kJ/mm2). Hence, conventional materials erode and corrode too soon and quite frequently to be of any practical use in automobiles. Nevertheless, railplugs made of nanomaterials last much longer even the conventional spark plugs. Also, automobiles waste significant amounts of energy by losing the thermal energy generated by the engine. This is especially true in the case of diesel engines. Hence, the engine cylinders (liners) are currently being envisioned to be coated with nanocrystalline ceramics, such as zirconia and alumina, so that they retain heat much more efficiently and result in complete and efficient combustion of the fuel.
Aerospace Components with Enhanced Performance Characteristics

Due to the risks involved in flying, aircraft manufacturers strive to make the aerospace components stronger, tougher, and last longer. One of the key properties required of the aircraft components is the fatigue strength, which decreases with the component’s age. By making the components out of stronger materials, the life of the aircraft is greatly increased. The fatigue strength increases with a reduction in the grain size of the material. Nanomaterials provide such a significant reduction in the grain size over conventional materials that the fatigue life is increased by an average of 200-300%. Furthermore, components made of nanomaterials are stronger and can operate at higher temperatures, aircrafts can fly faster and more efficiently (for the same amount of aviation fuel). In spacecrafts, elevated-temperature strength of the material is crucial because the components (such as rocket engines, thrusters, and vectoring nozzles) operate at much higher temperatures than aircrafts and higher speeds. Nanomaterials are perfect candidates for spacecraft applications, as well.
Better and Future Weapons Platforms

Conventional guns, such as cannons, 155 mm howitzers, and multiple-launch rocket system (MLRS), utilise the chemical energy derived by igniting a charge of chemicals (gun powder). The maximum velocity at which the penetrator can be propelled is approximately 1.5-2.0 km/sec. On the other hand, electromagnetic launchers (EML guns), or railguns, use the electrical energy, and the concomitant magnetic field (energy), to propel the penetrators/projectiles at velocities up to 10 km/sec. This increase in velocity results in greater kinetic energy for the same penetrator mass. The greater the energy, the greater is the damage inflicted on the target. For this and other reasons, the DoD (especially, the U. S. Army) has conducted extensive research into the railguns. Since a railgun operates on electrical energy, the rails need to be very good conductors of electricity. Also, they need to be so strong and rigid that the railgun does not sag while firing and buckle under its own weight. The obvious choice for high electrical conductivity is copper. However, the railguns made out of copper wear out much too quickly due to the erosion of the rails by the hypervelocity projectiles and they lack high-temperature strength. The wear and erosion of copper rails necessitate inordinately frequent barrel replacements. In order to satisfy these requirements, a nanocrystalline composite material made of tungsten, copper, and titanium diboride is being evaluated as a potential candidate. This nanocomposite possesses the requisite electrical conductivity, adequate thermal conductivity, excellent high strength, high rigidity, hardness, and wear/erosion resistance. This results in longer-lasting, wear-resistant, and erosion-resistant railguns, which can be fired more frequently and often than their conventional counterparts.
Longer-Lasting Satellites

Satellites are being used for both defence and civilian applications. These satellites utilise thruster rockets to remain in or change their orbits due to a variety of factors including the influence of gravitational forces exerted by the earth. Hence, these satellites are repositioned using these thrusters. The life of these satellites, to a large extent, is determined by the amount of fuel they can carry on board. In fact, more than 1/3 of the fuel carried aboard by the satellites is wasted by these repositioning thrusters due to incomplete and inefficient combustion of the fuel, such as hydrazine. The reason for the incomplete and inefficient combustion is that the onboard ignitors wear out quickly and cease to perform effectively. Nanomaterials, such as nanocrsytalline tungsten-titanium diboride-copper composite, are potential candidates for enhancing these ignitors’ life and performance characteristics.
Longer-Lasting Medical Implants

Currently, medical implants, such as orthopaedic implants and heart valves, are made of titanium and stainless steel alloys. These alloys are primarily used in humans because they are biocompatible, i.e., they do not adversely react with human tissue. In the case of orthopaedic implants (artificial bones for hip, etc.), these materials are relatively non-porous. For an implant to effectively mimic a natural human bone, the surrounding tissue must penetrate the implants, thereby affording the implant with the required strength. Since these materials are relatively impervious, human tissue does not penetrate the implants, thereby reducing their effectiveness. Furthermore, these metal alloys wear out quickly necessitating frequent, and often very expensive, surgeries. However, nanocrystalline zirconia (zirconium oxide) ceramic is hard, wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant (biological fluids are corrosive), and biocompatible. Nanoceramics can also be made porous into aerogels (aerogels can withstand up to 100 times their weight), if they are synthesized by sol-gel techniques. This results in far less frequent implant replacements, and hence, a significant reduction in surgical expenses. Nanocrystalline silicon carbide (SiC) is a candidate material for artificial heart valves primarily due to its low weight, high strength, extreme hardness, wear resistance, inertness (SiC does not react with biological fluids), and corrosion resistance.
Ductile, Machinable Ceramics

Ceramics, per se, are very hard, brittle, and hard to machine. These characteristics of ceramics have discouraged the potential users from exploiting their beneficial properties. However, with a reduction in grain size, these ceramics have increasingly been used. Zirconia, a hard, brittle ceramic, has even been rendered superplastic, i.e., it can be deformed to great lengths (up to 300% of its original length). However, these ceramics must possess nanocrystalline grains to be superplastic. In fact, nanocrystalline ceramics, such as silicon nitride (Si3N4) and silicon carbide (SiC), have been used in such automotive applications as high-strength springs, ball bearings, and valve lifters, because they possess good formability and machinabilty combined with excellent physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. They are also used as components in high-temperature furnaces. Nanocrystalline ceramics can be pressed and sintered into various shapes at significantly lower temperatures, whereas it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to press and sinter conventional ceramics even at high temperatures.
Large Electrochromic Display Devices

An electrochromic device consists of materials in which an optical absorption band can be introduced, or an existing band can be altered by the passage of current through the materials, or by the application of an electric field. Nanocrystalline materials, such as tungstic oxide (WO3.xH2O) gel, are used in very large electrochromic display devices. The reaction governing electrochromism (a reversible coloration process under the influence of an electric field) is the double-injection of ions (or protons, H+) and electrons, which combine with the nanocrystalline tungstic acid to form a tungsten bronze. These devices are primarily used in public billboards and ticker boards to convey information. Electrochromic devices are similar to liquid-crystal displays (LCD) commonly used in calculators and watches. However, electrochromic devices display information by changing colour when a voltage is applied. When the polarity is reversed, the colour is bleached. The resolution, brightness, and contrast of these devices greatly depend on the tungstic acid gel’s grain size. Hence, nanomaterials are being explored for this purpose.
Summary

From the above examples, it is quite evident that nanocrystalline materials, synthesised by the sol-gel technique, can be used in a wide variety of new, unique and existing applications. It is also very evident that nanomaterials outperform their conventional counterparts because of their superior chemical, physical, and mechanical properties and of their exceptional formability.

Metal and Alloy Nanopowders Available from Alfa Aesar – Characteristics and Materials

2007-02-09T22:43:00.001-08:00

Alfa Aesar, has recently introduced a new line of metal and alloy nanopowders. This new product family consists of the following categories:

· Elemental, metallic and semi metallic NanoMetals

· NanoAlloys

· Nitride nanopowders

· Ceramic nanopowders
Nanopowder Characteristics

Some of the characteristics of these products that differentiate them from the competition are:

· Smaller Particle Sizes (typically < 50nm)

· Tighter Particle Size Distribution (typically ± 10nm)

· No, or soft agglomeration

· Large Surface Area (typically > 30 m²/g)

· Controlled Surface Layer Formation (oxide or no oxide)

· Available for virtually any inorganic element
Available Nanopowder Products

Below is a list of products currently available.

Stock No.

Description

44987

Cobalt nanopowder, 7-15nm, 98%

44988

Copper nanopowder, 18-20nm, 97%

44989

Molybdenum nanopowder, 5-12nm, 99%

44990

Nickel nanopowder, 12-15nm, 98%

44991

Silicon nanopowder, 15-30nm, 99%

44992

Zinc nanopowder, 25-30nm, 99%

44993

Boron nanopowder, 10-20nm, 95%

44994

Tantalum nanopowder, 10-20nm, 99%

44995

Copper based NanoAlloy, 15-30nm

44996

Cobalt based NanoAlloy, 5-30nm

44997

Aluminum based NanoAlloy, 20-40nm

44998

Titanium disilicide nanopowder, 6-9nm

44999

Boron nitride nanopowder, 5-20nm

Materials Used in a Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plant

2007-02-09T22:42:00.001-08:00

Nuclear fuel reprocessing has been carried out at Sellafield in the UK since the 1950s and, over that period, has presented engineers with a wide variety of challenging materials problems.

The process carried out at Sellafield is basically the dissolution of spent nuclear fuel in hot concentrated nitric acid and then the separation of its constituent parts by a solvent extraction process. During this process, various waste products arise - gases, liquids and solids, all of which have to be made safe to minimise discharges to the environment. There is also a need to transport nuclear materials, i.e spent nuclear fuels from the power generators in the UK and abroad and wastes generated in the reprocessing operations which are transported back to the customer.
Materials Selection Criteria

The selection of a material for any chemical process plant is a complicated decision involving many parameters such as corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, availability, cost, etc. What makes nuclear plant more demanding is the presence of radiation, particularly gamma, and of radioactive contamination of surfaces, usually alpha radiation emitting particles, which need to be decontaminated either on a routine basis or at the end of their life. Not only must the materials perform their function for extended periods of time in non-maintainable areas but this performance has to be demonstrated. Even where radiation levels are very low and do not present risk to human life, great care is still taken. The result of this is that the nuclear industry generally is more conservative than most with regard to new materials which, by definition, will have no track record of satisfactory service. The tendency is for an evolutionary approach rather than great leaps into the unknown.

In addition, materials that play a crucial role in maintaining the high safety standards necessary in any modern chemical plant must be obtained under a strict quality assurance regime. There is little point in compiling exacting technical specifications for materials and then discovering that there are doubts about their origin, processing, identity, etc.
Materials Used

The engineering materials utilised at Sellafield are those that are used in many large chemical process plants, but they will have been put under greater scrutiny for the reasons given earlier. By far the largest in tonnage terms is concrete; this is followed by steel, both carbon and stainless, which is widely used in large amounts with much smaller quantities of nickel alloys, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, polymers, glass and various coatings.
Concrete

Concrete is used extensively, as in any other large chemical plant, for building foundations, bridges, drainage channels, etc. But there are some situations at Sellafield which deserve special mention. There is a need for biological shielding in a number of operating areas and concrete offers the most cost effective way of achieving this; if necessary, additives such as lead shot can be used to enhance its shielding properties, or polymer fibres to increase its toughness. Since the concrete has to be penetrated to allow access for power and instrument cables, water, air, etc, chloride levels in the concrete must not be excessive in order to minimise the likelihood of corrosion of metallic conduits carrying these services; concrete to BS 8110 is usually specified and the use of marine sand and aggregate is forbidden. Concrete is also the main structural material for water filled ponds in which spent nuclear fuel is stored prior to reprocessing. A number of important structures containing active materials have to survive seismic events and hence some of the concrete is more heavily reinforced than would normally be the case.

An important use of concrete in the non-structural sense is particular to the industry, namely the immobilisation of certain radioactive wastes by encapsulation, figure 1. The active material is mixed with the concrete, a mix of ordinary portland cement (OPC) and blast furnace slag. It is then cast into stainless steel drums for eventual disposal in an underground repository, in which the drums are embedded within a highly alkaline backfill. The high alkalinity of the concrete matrix and backfill not only suppresses corrosion processes on the interior and exterior of the drum but it also acts as a very effective barrier to radionuclide migration. The concrete walls of the repository will also prevent the migration of radioactive species, as will the surrounding rock strata.

Steels

As in any large plant, carbon steels are used extensively for structural steelwork, cranes, lifting beams, drive shafts, reinforcing bars, bolts, etc. Their advantages are well known they are widely available, cheap, easily fabricated, heat treatable to give a wide range of properties and are readily amenable to simple, conventional and established non-destructive testing methods. Equally well known are their limitations - poor corrosion resistance and ductility at low temperatures.

The grade of steel usually employed for steel framed factory buildings is BS4360 43A (nowadays, BS EN 10025 Fe430A), which is usually clad with organically coated steel or aluminium sheets. Grade 43A steel is not supplied with any guaranteed impact properties and where these are needed, in the relevant design code, then grades 43E or 50D are used. There may also be parts of a fabrication where material is are subjected to high through thickness stresses and here, metallurgically cleaner steels are used (as specified in BS EN 10164 - formerly BS 6780). The advantages of these steels in reducing lamellar tearing are well known.
C-Mn-Ni Steels

C-Mn-Ni steels, as forgings or rolled plates, are used in the specialised area of fuel transport flasks which have to meet national and international regulations before they can be approved for use, figure 2. The impact properties of these materials are extremely important because of the potential, albeit slight, for accidents. Much work has been done, and is continuing, on characterising their dynamic fracture toughness properties and on the development, in various countries, of more cost effective materials such as ductile cast iron and cast steel.

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are used extensively at Sellafield as the main material of construction for process vessels and pipework. Much effort has been expended in defining the operating limits of these steels. After many thousands of hours of laboratory testing and decades of plant experience, it has been possible to define realistic and predictable corrosion rates before and after welding, cold working and hot working. An example is shown in figure 3, which depicts the corrosion rate of 18Cr‑13Ni‑1Nb; this was the primary grade of stainless steel used at Sellafield until the 1980s when it was superseded by the NAG 18/10L grade. The main advantages of austenitic stainless steels are their inherently high resistance to corrosion in oxidising media such as nitric acid and the relative ease with which they can be decontaminated. They also have excellent impact resistance down to sub-zero temperatures, they are readily available and are easy to fabricate and weld.

Magnesium Alloys - Zirconium Free Casting Alloys

2007-02-09T22:41:00.000-08:00

Magnesium casting alloys can conveniently be divided into two basic groups zirconium-free and magnesium-zirconium alloys. The first commercially available group of zirconium-free alloys were Mg-Al-Zn based, the most widely used alloy being AZ91 (Mg 9%Al 1 %Zn 0.2%Mn). Other alloy systems include Mg-Al-Si, Mg-Al-rare earth and Mg-Zn-Cu alloys. Mg-Al-Zn alloys are cheap but are also difficult to cast successfully. Sand castings are prone to outcropping, microporosity, and achieving pressure tight castings can be a problem unless extensive sealing treatments are carried out. AZ91 is used primarily in high pressure die cast form particularly by the automotive industry, as car makers worldwide aim to reduce vehicle weights in order to improve fuel economy.

Sand cast Mg-Al-Zn alloys have reasonable properties in the T6 condition up to 120°C, although strength then decreases rapidly with increasing temperature and mechanical properties can vary substantially depending on section thickness. Despite these drawbacks, AZ91 castings are used in some aerospace applications, including complex aerospace sand castings such as the Westland Sea King helicopter gearbox.

Introduction of high purity variants of these alloys with lower levels of heavy metal impurities (iron, copper, and nickel) has significantly improved corrosion performance. The sand casting alloy AZ91C has now been largely replaced by its high purity variant AZ91E which has a corrosion rate around 100 times better in salt fog tests.

ZC63 alloy (Mg 6.0%Zn 3.0%Cu 0.5% Mn) was developed as an easy to process, commercial grade alloy. The North American automotive industry has shown particular interest, and ZC63 engine castings, including cylinder blocks and sumps, are being tested as a possible replacement for other materials.
Key Properties

· Light weight

· Low density (two thirds that of aluminium)

· Good high temperature mechanical properties

· Good to excellent corrosion resistance
Applications

Aerospace applications such as castings for gearboxes, transmissions, intermediate compressors, auxiliary gearboxes, generators, canopies and engine components.

Due to their light weight and mechanical properties they are used in motor racing applications to reduce vehicle weights.

Other applications include electronics, sporting goods, nuclear applications, office equipment, flares, sacrificial anodes, flash photography and tools.

Magnesium Alloys – Zirconium Containing Casting Alloys

2007-02-09T22:40:00.000-08:00

Background

A major step forward in the development of magnesium alloys was the discovery in 1937 of the intense grain refining effect of zirconium. The presence of zirconium gives a fine, equiaxed grain structure with typical grain sizes of 30-50 microns in sand castings compared to the relatively coarse dendritic structure of Mg-Al-Zn alloys. As zirconium forms stable compounds with aluminium and manganese, it could not be used to grain refine Mg-Al-Zn alloys and consequently a totally new series of Mg-Zr alloys was required.

The first Mg-Zr alloys contained zinc as strengthening element and subsequent alloys contained thorium, silver and most recently yttrium. Most Mg-Zr alloys contain rare earth elements such as cerium, neodymium and lanthanum, which form simple eutectic systems with magnesium and enhance castability due to formation of grain boundary networks of relatively low melting point eutectics.

Continuous alloy development has led to major improvements in ambient temperature mechanical properties of Mg-Zr alloys. However, the significant improvement in high temperature properties allows the most recent alloys to be used up to 300°C compared to 150°C for earlier Mg-Zr alloys. Figure 1 shows the variation of tensile strength and yield strength with temperature for various magnesium casting alloys.

Mg-Zn-rare earth (RE)-Zr alloys

For many years, Mg-Zn-RE-Zr alloys containing cerium or lanthanum rare earth elements have been the most widely used alloys for sand and gravity casting. The single most used alloy for gearbox casings is RZ5 (ZE41) which retains mechanical properties up to about 150°C. A second alloy ZRE1 (EZ33) has been used extensively in jet engines where good creep properties are required at around 150°C. Both alloys have excellent castability and complex castings can be made with virtually no microporosity.

Some Mg-Zn-Zr alloys without rare earth elements, including ZK51 (Mg 4.5%Zn 0.7%Zr), were developed but were not widely used due to poor castability and weldability.
Thorium-containing alloys

Magnesium thorium alloys, ZT1 (HZ32) and TZ6 (ZH62), were developed for high temperature creep resistance up to 350°C. They are used primarily in aero engines, where good creep properties are essential, as lightweight alternatives to high temperature aluminium alloys or titanium.

However, concerns over manufacture and foundry handling of Mg-Th alloys have led to complex and costly production operations, while environmental factors have increased disposal costs significantly. Mg-Th alloys are not being considered for new projects and yttrium containing alloys are likely to be used for similar future applications.
Silver-containing alloys

These alloys were developed for improved ambient and high temperature properties compared to Mg-Zn-RE-Zr alloys. Silver is the main strengthening element and neodymium or praseodymium rare earth elements are used. In the T6 heat treated condition, good tensile properties are maintained at temperatures above 200°C although creep properties are inferior to those of thorium-containing alloys.

The most common alloy is MSR (QE22) containing 2.5% silver. In a later development, a cheaper, low silver alloy, EQ21, was produced which had similar ambient temperature and slightly better high temperature mechanical properties. These alloys are generally used in aerospace gearbox and engine casings where improved high temperature performance is required, such as the Rolls Royce Tay intermediate casing.
Yttrium-containing alloys (WE Alloys)

The Mg-Y-Nd-RE-Zr alloys, WE43 and WE54, were developed primarily for improved mechanical properties compared to existing magnesium alloys, particularly at elevated temperatures and as an alternative to thorium-containing alloys. WE43 contains less yttrium and rare earth elements than WE54 and so has lower strength but higher ductility. A major feature of WE alloys is their inherently superior corrosion resistance compared to other magnesium alloys. Corrosion rates of WE alloys in salt fog tests are similar to high purity AZ91 alloy and many aluminium casting alloys.

The aerospace industry has shown considerable interest in WE43 due to its combination of strength, ductility and corrosion resistance. Figure 1 shows that WE43 has superior strength to MSR at elevated temperatures and RZ5 at all temperatures. Properties of WE43 also compare very well with those of common aerospace aluminium alloys, A356 and A203, especially above 200°C, figure 2. In addition, the strength of WE43 is not reduced significantly after long term elevated temperature exposure whereas some aluminium casting alloys show substantial loss of properties.

Metal and Alloy Nanopowders Available from Alfa Aesar – Characteristics and Materials

2007-01-04T01:20:00.001-08:00

Metal and Alloy Nanopowders Available from Alfa Aesar – Characteristics and Materials

2007-01-03T01:19:00.000-08:00

Materials on Display

2007-01-02T01:18:00.000-08:00

TVs that hang on the wall like a portrait have for decades had a regular part in popular predictions of how we will live in ‘the future’. In real life, however, the technological problems involved in producing efficient thin, large area displays have not yet been successfully addressed.

Now that digital wide screen programming and domestic web browsing are becoming commonplace, there is suddenly a real consumer demand for high information content displays in the 50cm to 100cm diagonal size range. Contending flat panel technologies for this slice of the market, expected to be worth about US$30 billion worldwide by 2002, are struggling with a plethora of materials issues. The aim is to produce an affordable, energy efficient, light weight, thin and broad area display. Significant problems arise with scaling existing technologies, processing these complex electronic devices with as high a yield as possible, and ensuring they operate uniformly and predictably for long periods of time. Figure 1 summarises current and emerging display technologies.

Figure 1. The range of different competing display technologies depends on the size of the display.

In many ways the standard is set by the now ubiquitous cathode ray tube (CRT) which has long dominated the domestic market. The CRT is an affordable and reliable means of generating bright moving images, only let down by being as deep as it is wide. The ever wider screens now available are increasingly bulky, heavy and difficult to manufacture.
Liquid Crystal Displays – LCD’s

The most successful flat panel display (FPD) technology to emerge so far is the active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) found in laptop computers, space saving desktop monitors and many other consumer electronic items. Compared to the domestic television these screens suffer from a poor viewing angle, and their brightness relies on an energy sapping colour filtered back light. Screen Technology Ltd is overcoming these drawbacks with its photoluminescent LCD (PLLCD) technology. This uses a near ultraviolet (390nm) back light modulated by an LCD shutter to excite a phosphor screen on the front of the display. It is already demonstrating 30cm colour displays and is now working on an innovative approach to seamlessly tile LCDs using PLLCD technology to enable large screens to be made.

Even so, AMLCDs are unlikely to extend affordably much beyond the 50cm diagonal in the near future. They require three thin film transistors positioned at each colour pixel (one to control each primary colour), so the display is rather like a very large area memory chip. Producing a defect free device over such a broad area, in a clean room where dust particles are almost certainly present, is a real challenge. Not only that, but as the size extends, the capital equipment costs rise very steeply. Some of the tolerances necessary for the liquid crystal to operate reproducibly are tight, requiring extremely flat glass substrates and good registry between the numerous deposition, photolithography and etching steps. For example, the metal tracks are deposited by magnetron sputtering, the transparent indium tin oxide electrodes are produced using reactive ion sputtering, and the transistors are made using plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition at around 300°C.

Inhalers – Demonstration of the Use of Surface Analysis Techniques to Resolve Problems Associated with Inhalers

2007-01-01T01:18:00.000-08:00

Surface Analysis of Blemishes on the Inner Surfaces of Aluminium Metered Dose Inhaler (MDI) Cans

The purpose of this work was to investigate the appearance of blemishes on the inner surface of aluminium MDI cans.

Surface analysis of the blemishes suggests that the stain is a water drying stain.

It was shown that the area of interest was rich in calcium, sodium and chlorine.
Analysis of a Stain on the Outer Surfaces of Aluminium Metered Dose Inhaler (MDI) Cans

The aim of this work was to analyse a stain on the outer surface of an MDI can.

XPS and ToF-SIMS were used to characterise the stain. Analysis showed the stain to be organic in nature, characterised by a series of compounds which were based on fatty acids and found in lubricating oils.
Investigation into the Molecular Weight Distribution of a Fluorocarbon Coating on Barrels of a Metered Dose Inhaler (MDI)

The aim of this work was to analyse fluorocarbon-coated MDI barrels after partial silver metallisation in order to determine the molecular weight distribution.

ToF-SIMS analysis showed:

Depositions of sub-monolayer levels of silver for silver cationisation experiments were successful. For the three-sputter deposition times, 0.5 s, 1 s and 2 s, the fluorocarbon coating was only partially covered. As expected, the silver coverage increased with the deposition time.

The coating is consistent with an oxygenated fluorocarbon material. There is also evidence for the incorporation of nitrogen-containing species on/in the fluorinated surface.

There is clear evidence for interaction between the deposited silver and the oxygenated fluorocarbon coating, there is no evidence for high mass fluorocarbon-based cations giving rise to an oligomer distribution pattern.
Analysis of Metered Dose Inhaler (MDI) Barrels

The aim of this investigation was to analyse, un-used, filled and ex DTU MDI barrels using XPS and ADXPS.

Surface analysis showed:

There was significant silicone contamination of some of the barrel surfaces. The silicone is thought to originate from the lubricant, which is applied to the barrel assembly during construction/filling.

Generally there is a clear decrease in fluorine concentration with increasing analysis depth for all the barrels. However, the size of the decreases relative to the overall concentrations are marginal but do represent a ‘thinning’ of the coating.

In general the angle dependent data shows a gradual, almost linear, transition between fluoro-carbon character and substrate character which would suggest a diffuse structure rather than a discrete layer of fluoro-carbon on the substrate

No significant trend in CF3:CF2 ratio is found for changes in sampling depth or for the different barrel conditions for any particular batch.

BN Nanorod Production Using Mechanical Alloying

2006-12-31T01:13:00.000-08:00

Mechanical alloying techniques have been used to produce BN nanorods based on elemental boron powders and nitrogen gas mixed in a container at room temperature. To explore the possible increments in the amount of the obtained nanorods, different containers have been used (stainless steel and tungsten carbide). Also different element additions to the initial mixture, such as Si and Fe have been tested. The results indicate that the Fe and Si additions enhance the BN nanorods production and reduce the presence of oxygen in these materials.
Keywords

Nanorods, Mechanical alloying, Boron nitride, Characterization, Electron microscopy.
Introduction

Fullerene-related materials such as carbon nanotubes have been the centre of extensive research [1]. The formation of nanotubular structures have also been found in several other systems such as: MoS2 [2], BxCyNz [3] and BN [4]. BN nanotubes are promising tubular structures for use in electronic devices because of the special semiconducting properties [5]. Different methods have been recently reported in the literature for synthesizing these BN nanostructure crystalline materials. These include techniques such as: plasma arc discharge [4], laser ablation [6] and catalytic decomposition [7]. Also, BN nanotubes have been obtained from a substitution reaction of carbon nanotubes at 1773 K [8]. These methods require either high power lasers or high temperature even sometimes subsequent annealing of the obtained compounds [9]. Ball milling techniques have also been used for this purpose. Thus, for example, room temperature ball milling of elemental boron in ammonia gas followed by annealing at a relatively low temperature has been used to produce BN nanotubes [10]. Multiple walled BN nanotubes and nanorods have recently been obtained using a mechanical alloying technique at room temperature [11]. However, the presence of these BN nanostructures were scarce and not frequently found in the ball milled powders. In this investigation, the effect of the container nature and the effects of some particular element additions to the milled powder mixture, on the BN nanorod production have been explored. Stainless steel and tungsten carbide containers have been used in the experimental ball mill arrangements. Also, additions of Si and Fe to the original mixture (boron powder and nitrogen gas), have been explored.
Experimental

Boron powder (99.8%) with particle sizes of approximately 1μ was ball milled at room temperature using a SPEX ball mill (8000D). High purity hydrogen was used as the milling atmosphere. Balls and containers (volume 270 ml.) of steel and tungsten carbide were used. Small amounts of sample were taken at specific milling times (3 and 8 h.), keeping the weight ratio of 30:1. Fe (99.9%) and Si (98.5%) were added to the boron powders (2 wt%), when the tungsten carbide container was used. The mechanically milled powders were characterized using X ray diffraction patterns and transmission electron microscopy. The X-ray experiments were carried out in a Siemens D-5000 instrument using CuKα radiation (Nickel filter) and the TEM observations in a Philips Tecnai F20 microscope. The TEM observations of the powder samples were obtained using holey carbon coated copper grids.

FELDCO International – Suppliers of Advanced Ceramics and Sputtering Targets

2006-12-30T01:16:00.000-08:00

FELDCO INTERNATIONAL have been in the Technical Ceramic Materials business for over 10 yrs years with plenty of experience to be able to help you with all of your needs.

We are currently based in the Mission Viejo area of beautiful CA and we really do appreciate your business!

FELDCO INTERNATIONAL provides a large variety of Sputtering Targets in many of shapes and thickness per your specifications with purities up to 99.999 %.

sputtering targets - target materials - pvd

FELDCO INTERNATIONAL also offers with Boron Carbide Pressed Materials, high quality Boron Carbide Powder at a very competitive price, all shipments are certified by spectro-chemical analysis. Grain size ranges from 5 mesh to 3 micron with Boron content up to 80 %. We currently supply Boron Carbide Powder to major shielding manufactures in the United States.

Go to Pressed Materials where you will find materials like:

· Alumina

· Boron Carbide

· Silicon Carbide

· Boron Nitride

· Silicon Nitride

· Aluminum Nitride

· and others.

Conductive Ceramic Composites

2006-12-29T01:15:00.001-08:00

Ceramic composites are being actively developed in many research establishments primarily for structural and load-bearing applications. Fibre, whisker or particulate reinforced composites can be made tougher and stronger than traditional unreinforced ceramics. Among the key factors responsible for the improved stress resistance are differences in Young’s moduli between the phases and the nature of the interaction at interfaces between matrix and the reinforcement.

Incorporation of borides, carbides, nitrides or metals into multi component composites modifies the fracture properties by increasing thermoelastic mismatch strain and crack deflection behaviour. Moreover, at sufficiently high processing temperatures the individual components may react and form new compounds. Isomorphic substitutions between cations are well known in a great variety of mineral structures. Structural replacement between oxygen, nitrogen and carbon does take place and results in formation of oxynitrides and oxycarbonitrides. The phases with covalent or metallic bonding thus formed can impart electrical conductivity, which is not a typical property of most ceramics. Conductivity in combination with wear and corrosion resistance and the general refractory nature of ceramics offers potential for applications of the composites as electrodes in advanced technologies.
Conductive Ceramic Composite Systems

The conductive ceramic composites developed by PATRIA Inc as an outgrowth of a larger research and development programme are materials which combine high toughness, corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity. They constitute complex systems based on oxide and non-oxide phases. The starting composition is of the general form, Al2O3-ZrO2-AlN-SiCw-X where X denotes additions of TiB2, TiC, BN or Nb. To prepare the composites, the powders were mixed in either 20 vol% or 25 vol% of each constituent using a proprietary mixing procedure which involved ultrasonic and mechanical dispersion in non-aqueous slurries. Dry batches were subsequently hot pressed in the temperature range 1700-2000°C under pressure of 21 MNm-2, to form billets 10cm in diameter and 4cm high.
Physical and Chemical Properties

During hot pressing, chemical reactions between various components accompany densification, so the final compositions differ from the initial constituents, especially because at the highest temperatures employed a limited amount of liquid phase assists densification. The materials are dense, hard and tough, with fracture toughness’ in the range 3.5 to 6 MNm-3/2. The nominal density of unfired composites varied between 4 to 5.8 g cm-3, whereas after hot pressing, the density ranged from 93% to 102% theoretical, the upper limit above 100% being due to formation of new, dense phases.

An example of microstructure formed after hot pressing a five component Nb-containing composite at 1800°C revealed two distinct phases, a Si-Al-O-N phase and a Nb-rich phases. Reaction zones can be identified around the grains. Metallic Nb has completely reacted with ZrO2 and SiC grains and formed two dominant phases, a Nb-Zr carbonitride and a Nb-Si carbide. The third major phase is sialon. The distribution of oxygen among these phases suggests that most of the original oxides have been consumed during reactive hot pressing, leaving only remnants of SiO2 and Al2O3. In general, the distribution of light elements was restricted among specific phases in this material. After processing at 1900°C the Nb-Si-C phase of intermediate reflectivity disappears, possibly reacting with the Nb-phase to form a complex Nb-Si-Zr carbonitride.

Strength measurements for the composites are promising. The room temperature flexural strength ranges between 180 and 400 MNm-2. Compatibility with molten metals is generally good and samples submerged for 6 hrs in pure molten iron or aluminium showed no visible sign of attack.

Boron Nitride

2006-12-28T01:15:00.000-08:00

Boron nitride is a synthetic material, which although discovered in the early 19th century was not developed as a commercial material until the latter half of the 20th century. Boron and nitrogen are neighbours of carbon in the periodic table - in combination boron and nitrogen have the same number of outer shell electrons - the atomic radii of boron and nitrogen are similar to that of carbon. It is not surprising therefore that boron nitride and carbon exhibit similarity in their crystal structure.

In the same way that carbon exists as graphite and diamond, boron nitride can be synthesised in hexagonal and cubic forms.

The synthesis of hexagonal boron nitride powder is achieved by nitridation or ammonalysis of boric oxide at elevated temperature. Cubic boron nitride is formed by high pressure, high temperature treatment of hexagonal BN.

Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) is the equivalent in structure of graphite (see figure 1). Like graphite its plate like microstructure and layered lattice structure give it good lubricating properties. h-BN is resistant to sintering and is usually formed by hot pressing.

Figure 1. h-BN powder (photo courtesy of Ceram Research Ltd)

Cubic boron nitride (C-BN) has the same structure as diamond and its properties mirror those of diamond. Indeed C-BN is the second hardest material next to diamond. C-BN was first synthesised in 1957, but it is only in the last 15 years that commercial production of C-BN has developed.
Key Properties
Hexagonal Boron Nitride (h-BN)

· h-BN has excellent lubricating properties

· In the hot pressed state, h-BN is readily machinable using conventional metal cutting techniques, hence complex shaped components can be fashioned from hot pressed billet.

· Providing oxidation of the surface can be prevented, h-BN is not wetted by most molten metals, glasses and salts and hence has a high resistance to chemical attack.

· High dielectric breakdown strength

· High volume resistivity

· Good chemical inertness

Boron Nitride ( BN ) – Supplier Data by Goodfellow

2006-12-27T01:13:00.001-08:00

Boron Nitride exhibits a hexagonal structure and is sometimes known as white graphite, due to its lubricity, anisotropic properties, heat resistance, and high thermal conductivity. This latter property, combined with a low thermal expansion, leads to excellent resistance to thermal shock. All three forms, Hot Pressed, Pyrolytic and Hot Isostatic Pressed, can be used at very high temperatures. However, in an oxidising atmosphere the maximum use temperature is 850-900°C. Hot Pressed and Hot Isostatic Pressed Boron Nitride are produced by densification of powder, whereas Pyrolitic Boron Nitride is produced by Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), depositing onto graphite at temperatures in excess of 1800°C.

Boron Nitride differs from graphite in having a high dielectric strength and low dielectric constant and is often used as an electrical insulator at very high temperatures. Chemically inert, Boron Nitride is used as crucibles for molten metals. Boron Nitride is non-toxic and transparent to microwaves. It may be machined to close tolerances.

Buckytubes - Understanding Their Amazing Properties

2006-12-26T02:12:00.001-08:00

The beginning of this story has been told many times. In 1985, a confluence of events led to an unexpected and unplanned experiment with a new kind of microscope resulting in the discovery of a new molecule made purely of carbon – the very element chemists felt there was nothing more to learn about. Buckyballs – sixty carbon atoms arranged in a soccer ball shape – had been discovered and the chemical world, not to mention the physical and material worlds, would never be the same.
Graphene

To understand why buckytubes have the incredible properties they do, we must first look at the building blocks of the tubes. Start by considering graphite. While long considered the poor brother of diamond in the family tree, graphite turns out to be far richer in its properties. Like the entrepreneurial son who never went to college, yet exceeded all expectations, graphite has, despite its unimpressive appearances, struck it rich. But, for this purpose, we’ll focus on a single layer of graphite, called graphene, in which the carbon atoms are arranged in hexagons, just like chicken-wire. Graphene has the distinction of being the densest known two-dimensional packing of atoms. No 2-D slice through diamond, or any other material, is denser on an atomic basis. This, together with the special nature of the carbon-carbon bonds in this network, gives graphene the highest stiffness of any sheet.
Mechanical Properties

Now take this sheet and wrap it up into a tube by seamlessly connecting two opposite edges. You now have a tube with the greatest stiffness, both in tension and in bending. Many materials are stiff (although not as stiff as this), but so brittle as to be often useless. (Likewise, most materials that are not brittle, such as spider silk, which can be stretched about 30% beyond its resting length, are not particularly strong.) Buckytubes, stiff as they are, are also amazingly tough: they can stretch beyond 20% of their resting length, and can be bent over double, and even tied into a knot and released with no resulting defect! This unprecedented combination of stiffness and toughness makes buckytubes by far the strongest known fibres in tension – about 100 times stronger than high-strength steel at one-sixth the weight! This is remarkable stuff.

Buckytubes - An Additive For Plastics

2006-12-25T02:11:00.000-08:00

The beginning of this story has been told many times. In 1985, a confluence of events led to an unexpected and unplanned experiment with a new kind of microscope resulting in the discovery of a new molecule made purely of carbon – the very element chemists felt there was nothing more to learn about. Buckyballs – sixty carbon atoms arranged in a soccer ball shape – had been discovered and the chemical world, not to mention the physical and material worlds, would never be the same.
A Versatile Filler for Plastics

The mechanical (stiffness, strength, toughness), thermal and electrical properties of pure buckytube materials enable a multitude of applications, from batteries and fuel cells to fibres and cables to pharmaceutics and biomedical materials. Scores of additional applications emerge when one thinks of blending nanotubes with other materials to improve existing properties or to provide new ones. Using nanotubes as fillers in thermoplastics and thermosets, for example, has been discussed for several years, and is only recently undergoing rapid investigation and development as sufficient quantities of high-quality buckytube material is becoming available to enable such investigations.

One of the most important technology developments of the last half of the twentieth century was the substantial replacement of metals with plastics. Most of this replacement has been in structural applications, where plastics have been engineered to outperform steel and other structural metals by providing adequate strength or stiffness at lower weight and cost. A key property that metals will always have over plastics, however, is in electrical conductivity. Plastics are amazingly good electrical insulators; in fact, this property gives rise to many of the most widespread and important uses of plastics. Nevertheless, the applications for plastics would be broadened substantially if good solutions existed to make these materials conductive.
New Applications

These application areas include: antistatic, electrostatic dissipative, and electromagnetic shielding and absorbing materials. Electromagnetic interference and radiofrequency interference (EMI/RFI) shielding, for example, is essential in laptop computers, cell phones, pagers and other portable electronic devices to prevent interference with and from other electronic equipment. At present, there is no suitable plastic material for this purpose, and metal, in one form or another, is typically added to provide this function in electronic equipment cases, imposing substantial weight and manufacturing expense.

Brick Walls – Mortar and Mortar Joints in Brick Walls

2006-12-24T02:06:00.000-08:00

Mortar joints bond bricks together allowing the brickwork to act as a structural element to carry both vertical and lateral loads.

Properly filled and tooled joints improve the durability, weather proofness and sound performance of brickwork. Raked or recessed joints should be avoided in applications where durability is critical, such as saline environments.

NOTES: It is recommended that a raked joint be used for bricks with a bevelled edge.
Colour

It is important to realise that the colour and style of mortar to be used is equally as important as choosing the bricks themselves. Mortar colour and style can dramatically change the overall look of your home/building, so it is important to be aware of the different colours and styles available. Some colours and their basic compositions are outlined in table 1.

Table 1. Approximate mortar compositions based on colour.

Colour

Sand

Oxide

Cement

Red

Yellow

Red

Natural

Brown

Yellow

Brown

Natural

White

White bush

-

White

Off white

White bush

-

Off white

Black

Yellow

Black

Natural

Natural

Yellow

-

Natural

Cream

Yellow

-

Off white

Yellow

Yellow

Yellow

Off white

Pigmented mortars must be strong enough to retain the pigment particles on the face of the joint. In weak mortars the pigment particles may rapidly be eroded from the face of the joint by wind and rain.

Acid cleaning of brickwork may also degrade pigment colour, leading to faded, patchy and unattractive mortar joints. For durable pigmented mortar always finish the joint by tooling even when a raked joint is required.
Batching Mortar

Unless the proportions of sand, lime and cement that go into a mortar mix are measured with care, it is impossible to be sure if the correct mix has been achieved.

In order to ensure that the correct proportion of materials has been used it is suggested that batching be carried out using buckets. It is unsatisfactory to try and use a shovel to give the same effect, based on the fact that the shovel is able to hold more sand than cement.

Mortar mixes are always specified as the proportion of cement to lime to sand, and always in that order. A common mortar made from portland cement has one part cement to one part lime and 6 parts of sand (abbreviated to C1: L1:S6 or more simply 1:1:6).

Biomolecule and/or Microwave-Assisted Solvothermal Syntheses of Nanomaterials

2006-12-23T02:05:00.000-08:00

The objectives of this research are to synthesize and characterize nanomaterials of controlled size and shape so that they can be used in several different applications. Nanophase metal particles have attracted a great deal of interest and have found applications in different fields such as catalysis, optical, microelectronic and magnetic devices and biological diagnostic probes due to their special properties that differ markedly from those of bulk materials. Noble metal nanophases such as Ag, Pt, Pd etc., are the focus of catalytic applications because these nanoparticles can be hybridized with other substrates for enhanced catalytic functions. A one-step microwave-assisted interface reaction using dodecylthiol and ethylene glycol was developed for the direct synthesis of hexagonally arranged spherical silver nanoparticles of about 10 nm. Microwave-assisted solvothermal methods using ethylene glycol, ethanol or methanol as reducing agents were found to be useful for Pt and Pd nanoparticle synthesis at low temperatures. Under conventional hydrothermal conditions, some nanowires such as Te were synthesized with the assistance of biomolecules. Nanowires and nanorods of metals are expected to be useful as interconnects in electronic devices with super-functions. Nanowires of Pt were grown in the nanochannels of mesoporous materials such as SBA-15, which served as a template. Porous alumina membrane was used as a template for the growth of oriented SBA-15 nanorods with the nanoporous channels parallel to the channels of alumina and this hybridized material is expected to find super-function in nanowire fabrication and bio-molecule separations. This review paper shows that conventional and microwave-assisted hydro- or solvothermal methods are eminently suited for the synthesis of nanomaterials of controlled size and shape under environmentally benign conditions.
Keywords

Nanowires, Nanophases, Solvothermal process, Hydrothermal Process, Biomolecules
Introduction

During the last two decades, there has been an enormous interest in nanostructures due to their conspicuous physical-chemical properties that differ markedly from those of bulk materials[1]. Various methods, such as hydrothermal and solvothermal routes[2], surfactant-assisted approach[3], have been utilized for the synthesis of nanomaterials. Most physical and chemical properties of these nanomaterials are sensitively dependent on their size and shape, so materials scientists are still focusing on developing simple and effective methods for the fabrication of nanomaterials of controlled size and morphology[4].

Since metal nanoparticles have various applications, the synthesis of metal nanoparticles has attracted much attention especially in the last decade[5]. A variety of techniques have been developed to synthesize metal nanoparticles, including chemical reduction using a number of chemical reductants including NaBH4, N2H4, NH2OH, ethanol, ethylene glycol and N,N-dimethyformamide (DMF)[6-10], aerosol technique[11], electrochemical or sonochemical deposition[12, 13], photochemical reduction[14], and laser irradiation technique[15]. Because of the size-dependent properties, many physical, chemical and electrochemical methods have been employed to get the metal nanoparticles with uniform size, such as NaBH4-reduction approach resulting in the thiol-capped 1.8-3.5 nm diameter silver nanoparticles and alcohol reduction of fatty acid silver salts under microwave irradiation[16, 17]. The assembly of uniform nanoparticles into well-defined two- and three-dimensional (2D and 3D) superlattices is critically important to chemical, optical, magnetic and electronic nanodevices and would bring possibilities to brand-new properties and applications that result from the spatial orientation and arrangement of the nanocrystals[18]. Therefore, several approaches, such as self-assembly[19], Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) techniques[7], and electrophoretic deposition method[20] have been used in order to obtain self-organized lattices of metal, oxide and chalcogenide nanoparticles including silver[11], gold[21], cobalt[22], indium[23], α-Fe2O3[24], cobalt oxide[25], BaTiO3[26], CdS[27], CdSe[28], and Ag2S[29] nanoparticle arrays.

Besides the uniform and assembled nanoparticles, one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures, such as nanorods and nanowires, are also of particular interest not only because of their great potential for testing and understanding fundamental concepts but also because of their wide applications as interconnects in electronic devices with super-functions[30]. The synthesis of 1D nanostructures and guiding these nanometer-scaled building blocks to ordered superstructures would offer great opportunities to investigate the size- and dimensionality-dependent properties of these materials and could lead to the construction of nanoscale devices[31]. Until now, great progress has been made in the shape control of nanomaterials and a range of different 1D nanostructures have been fabricated by various techniques, such as Vapor-Liquid-Solid (VLS) growth mechanism[32], micro-emulsion method[3], hydrothermal (or solvothermal) technique[2] and template methods[33]. Among the various methods, hard template method is an effective method to obtain the nanostructures with low dimensionality. Porous alumina membrane and mesoporous materials such as SBA-15 are two of the most used templates. Nanowires of Ag, Pt, and Au were grown in the nanochannels of SBA-15[34], and many other nanorods arrays have been obtained by porous alumina membrane[35]. However, the pore size of the alumina membrane is from dozens of nanometers to several hundred nanometers and the SBA-15 is usually in powder form or as membranes with its channels parallel to plane of the substrate, which limits their applications in nanodevice fabrication[36]. Combining these two templates by introducing SBA-15 into alumina membrane channels is expected to find super-function in nanowire fabrication and bio-molecule separations.

Automotive Applications – Surface Analysis Services for the Automotive Industry Offered by CSMA

2006-12-22T02:03:00.000-08:00

The automotive industry relies on a wide range of materials, ranging from polypropylene body parts to multilayer alloy coatings on engine components, to meet stringent consumer and legal requirements.
Driving Forces for New Materials in the Automotive Industry

Environmental legislation on VOCs, chlorinated solvents and low-toxicity processes coupled with improved impact safety standards has led to the introduction of many new materials. In addition consumer demands have necessitated new methods of achieving superb cosmetic appearance and toughness with near zero reject rates.
Analytical Techniques used to Investigate Materials-Related Automotive Problems

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Imaging Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToFSIMS) and 3DP-a surface topography technique have been used to investigate problem in areas such as Lubrication, Wear, Paint defects and Electrical component failure.
Where Surface Analysis Has Assisted Auto Manufacturers

Examples of investigations:

· Coating conformation and integrity determination

· Contamination analysis and quantification

· Improved production processes

· Component failure analysis

· 'Trouble shooting'

· Product development

Arsenic – Discovery, Occurrence, Production, Properties and Applications of Arsenic

2006-12-21T01:58:00.000-08:00

Arsenic is a semi-metallic element. Arsenic and its compounds are known to be toxic.

Arsenic has two forms. The grey metallic version has a density of 5.73g/cm3 and the yellow form that has a density of 1.97g/cm3.
Discovery

While arsenic has been in use since ancient times, in applications such as the hardening of bronze, its discovery has been attributed to Albertus Magnus in 1250AD. He isolated arsenic when he heated soap and orpiment (arsenic trisulphide, As2S3).
Occurrence

Although arsenic can be found in elemental form, it is most commonly found in minerals such as Mispickel (arsenopyrite, FeSAs) which is found in France, Germany, Italy, Romania, Siberia and North America.

Arsenic is also found in other minerals such as:

· Realgar As4S4

· Orpiment As2S3

· Arsenolite As2O3

· Loellingite FeAs2
Production

Arsenic is produce by heating arsenic-bearing minerals in the absence of air. E.g.

Key Properties

· Arsenic and its compounds are known to be toxic

· Arsenic does not melt, it sublimes, going directly from a solid to a gas

Property

Value

Symbol

As

Atomic Number

33

Atomic Weight

74.92

CAS Number

7440-38-2

Density

5.73g/cm3

Melting point

817˚C

Boiling Point

617˚C

Specific Heat

330J/kg.K

Electronegativity

2.18

Applications
Metallurgy

Arsenic is used as an additive for metallurgical purposes due to its semi-metallic properties. Examples include: adding 2% to lead to produce lead shot where the addition increases sphericity; a 3% addition to lead alloys increases mechanical properties and high temperature properties; and 0.15-0.50% addition to copper for high temperature applications.

Application of Crystal Chemistry in the Development of Radioactive Wasteforms

2006-12-20T01:57:00.000-08:00

The role of crystal chemistry in developing ceramic materials for high level radioactive waste immobilisation is reviewed. In nature certain minerals have shown the ability to retain radioactive elements such as 238U, 232Th, 40K, 87Rb and their progenies for hundreds of million of years. The original “SYNROC” (synthetic-rock) concept in the 1970s was developed utilising this philosophy. Here, it was possible to produce a ceramic material consisting of four main titanate phases, zirconolite (CaZrTi2O7), “hollandite” (Ba(Al,Ti)2Ti6O16), perovskite (CaTiO3) and titanium oxides (TinO2n-1) with the capacity to incorporate nearly all the elements present in high-level radioactive waste (HLW) into their crystal structures in solid solution. In the 1990s this concept was extended to tailor ceramic materials having predominantly zirconolite or its closely related pyrochlore structure to incorporate wastes rich in actinides, notably surplus US and Russian waste. Apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(F,OH,Cl)) is a naturally occurring mineral that accepts numerous substitutions of both cations and anions. One of its members is fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) which occurs naturally. By replacing Ca by Pb and P by V it was possible to incorporate I, a larger anion, at the F site. This ceramic material has the potential to incorporate 129I, which is a long-lived waste radionuclide. In this work we will discuss briefly the crystal chemistry of the main SYNROC phases, pyrochlore and apatite and their applications in developing wasteforms.
Keywords

Synroc, Radioactive Wasteforms, Crystal Chemistry, Zirconolite, Apatite.
Introduction

Before 1970, the nuclear power industry strategy for high-level radioactive waste (HLW) was to immobilise it in borosilicate glass, followed by deep burial in the Earth. However in the early 1970s, geochemists realised that borosilicate glasses might not be particularly stable with respect to contact by groundwater when buried in the ground, because a) radiogenic heating within the glass and/or the geothermal gradient could produce temperatures well in excess of 100°C, and b) groundwater could not be guaranteed to avoid contact with the glasses, even if a series of additional barriers such as metal containers and clay overpacks were introduced into a geological repository.

Alternative disposal matrices (wasteforms) were first put forward for HLW at the Pennsylvania State University, with the basic idea of incorporating the waste fission products and associated actinides in the crystalline lattices of synthetic minerals, which were known to be very long-lived (many millions of years) in nature [1]. These minerals included silicates (pollucite, CsAlSi2O6; Sr-feldspar, SrAl2Si2O8), phosphates (monazite, CePO4; apatite, Ca5(PO4)3(F,OH,Cl)) and oxides (fluorite-structured UO2). Mixtures (assemblages) of these phases were formed by adding calcia, phosphate, alumina and silica to the fission product wastes and sintering at ~ 1100°C. Waste loadings in these “Supercalcines” were as high as 70 mass%.

In 1979, Ringwood et al. [2] suggested assemblages of titanate minerals could be used to incorporate HLW, on the basis that in Nature, titanates are much more water-resistant than the supercalcine suite of minerals. In titanate assemblages waste ions are only dilutely incorporated into the phases, whereas in the supercalcines fission products/actinides were the basis of the phases. Because of the resemblance of the titanate phases to naturally occurring rocks, the alternate material was called SYNROC (synthetic-rock) Several forms of SYNROC have been named but the most extensively studied is SYNROC-C which was designed to incorporate Purex-type reprocessing waste from commercial nuclear power production [3]. SYNROC-C consists of four main titanate phases, ziconolite (CaZrTi2O7), “hollandite” (Ba(Al,Ti)2Ti6O16), perovskite (CaTiO3), titanium oxides (TinO2n-1) and ~ 2-5% metallic alloys. The first three phases provide various lattice sites in which nearly all the HLW ions are incorporated in solid solution. Titanium oxides are important - although they do not incorporate waste elements, they provide a chemical buffer that enables the relative proportion of SYNROC phases to vary in an in-situ manner. Some of these phases and their stability and the incorporation mechanisms of waste ions are discussed. Also another naturally occurring mineral, apatite is discussed with respect to immobilising niche waste 129I.

Alumina Ceramic Linings Solve Materials Handling Problem In Foundry - Supplier Data By Abresist

2006-12-19T01:55:00.000-08:00

Materials handling plays a key role in the day-to-day operations of every foundry. Whether moving materials into a plant, transferring it within the plant, or shipping finished goods out the door, materials handling is vital to the inner-workings of foundries. The North Manchester Foundry of North Manchester, Indiana, is no exception to this rule.

The facility manufactures and heat-treats an average of 70 tons of rough gray iron, ductile iron, and stainless steel castings per day. The castings are used in wide range of industries including the automotive, agricultural, boating and plumbing industries. The facility uses approximately 50,000 pounds of dry sand per day in their molding processes.
Pneumatic Sand Delivery

The sand, which plays a critical role in determining the strength and hardness of the castings, is pneumatically unloaded from the delivery truck at a pressure of 10-15 psi into a 4" diameter sand transporter line. Pneumatic conveying systems are based on fully or partially aerating the material, such as sand, to push it through a pipeline. In North Manchester Foundry’s case, the pipeline was originally schedule 40 pipe. Eventually, such pneumatic systems are prone to abrasive wear, especially when moving sand, even if extra-heavy pipe is used.
Excessive Abrasion

In 1988, the North Manchester Foundry was having problems with the pneumatic system due to excessive abrasion in two 90° elbows. Operations were interrupted on a regular basis so the elbows could be patched and eventually completely replaced. However, this remedy only lasted two years. Joe Brubaker, North Manchester Foundry’s maintenance foreman for the past 24 years, decided that a more permanent solution needed to be found.

“We knew that changing our method of transport (by replacing the pneumatic pipe system) was cost prohibitive,” said Brubaker. “But the elbows were going to continue to wear through because of the impact they sustained as the sand changes direction.”
ALRESIST High Alumina Ceramic-Lined Products

In 1990, Brubaker was approached by Abresist Corporation, the U.S. Subsidiary of Kalenborn Kalprotect, the German developer of ABRESIST® abrasion resistant materials. The Urbana, Indiana, company manufactures ALRESIST high alumina ceramic-lined products made from fine grain, alpha aluminum oxide. The alumina linings are rated 9 on the Mohs hardness scale, higher than any other material with the exception of diamond which is 10.

Working with the foundry, Abresist Corporation designed, fabricated and delivered two 4" ID x 90° elbows, 24" radius. The elbows were lined with 1" thick alumina cylinders installed in 10 gauge steel casings equipped with rotating flanges. Weld-on adaptor flanges were used to connect the oversized flanges to the schedule 40 straight pipe.

According to Abresist sales representative, Gary Hensley, “Abrasion is a common problem at most foundries in the pneumatic conveying of sand. The key to longer life in this abrasive situation was to provide a lining harder than the silica sand, and alumina does that.”

Alumina Ceramic Linings Solve Materials HandlAlumina Refractories – Alumina Bricks, Castables and Gunning Monolithics from Shinagawa Refractories

2006-12-18T01:56:00.000-08:00

Shinagawa offers a complete range of high quality dry pressed alumina bricks, ranging from 35% to 95% in alumina content. These materials are manufactured with state of the art equipment, including computer controlled hydraulic presses that tightly regulate brick sizing and compaction pressure.

Firing is accomplished in multi-stage kilns to ensure even and accurate burning and consistent properties. Strict quality control standards control brick appearance and inherent variables such as strength, density and porosity. This quality approach serves three product groups in the SHIRAL dry pressed brick line:

· Fired High Alumina Bricks – these are produced from premium grades of alumina’s and bauxite’s and include brick with very low porosity, high strength, high thermal shock resistance and metal slag resistance. Some special grades are manufactured with phosphate bonds or andalusite aggregate for specific applications.

· Chemically bonded High Alumina Bricks – these high alumina, phosphate bonded brick are ideally suited to steel ladle or molten aluminium furnace applications due to their unique chemistry, including special aggregates and additives.

· Superduty and Fireclay Bricks – these lower alumina grades of brick are produced to the same exacting standards as the high alumina grades. These brick exhibit good strength and spall resistance over a range of service conditions and find use in a variety of applications.
Conventional Monolithic – SHIRACAST®

Shinagawa offers a complete range of dense, cement bonded castables. These products, marketed under the SHIRACAST trade name are accurately formulated and blended to give excellent consistency and performance. Carefully selected raw material aggregates, cements and additives provide each material with its special properties and characteristics.

SHIRACAST monolithics are easy to use casting products available over a wide temperature range up to 1850˚C. They are suited to a wide range of general purpose and specific furnace applications and include grades with enhanced abrasion resistance (AR) and other materials exhibiting resistance to aluminium wetting (NW).

Alumina – An Overview

2006-12-17T01:55:00.000-08:00

Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3 ) or alumina is one of the most versatile of refractory ceramic oxides and finds use in a wide range of applications.

It is found in nature as corundum in emery, topaz, amethyst, and emerald and as the precious gemstones ruby and sapphire, but it is from the more abundant ores such as bauxite, cryolite and clays that the material is commercially extracted and purified.

Corundum exists as rhombohedral crystals with hexagonal structure. The unit cell is an acute rhombohedron of side length 5.2Å and plane angle ~55°. It is the close packing of the aluminium and oxygen atoms within this structure that leads to its good mechanical and thermal properties.
Extraction Routes

The most common process for the extraction and purification of alumina is the ‘Bayer’ process. The first step in the process is the mixing of ground bauxite into a solution of sodium hydroxide. By applying steam and pressure in tanks containing the mixture, the bauxite slowly dissolves. The alumina released reacts with the sodium hydroxide to form sodium aluminate. After the contents of the tank have passed through other vessels where the pressure and temperature are reduced and impurities are removed, the solution of sodium aluminate is placed in a special tank where the alumina is precipitated out. The precipitate is removed from the tank, washed, and heated in a kiln to drive off any water present. The residue is a commercially pure alumina.

Other extraction processes are used including pyrogenic treatment of bauxite with soda, and the extraction of aluminium hydroxide from meta kaolin via either the chloride or sulphate.

The yield of alumina from these processes can approach 90%.

For advanced ceramics uses, the alumina manufactured by these processes requires further purification. This is often achieved by recrystallisation from ammonium alum.

Alumina (Aluminium Oxide) – The Different Types of Commercially Available Grades

2006-12-16T01:54:00.000-08:00

Alumina is the most widely used oxide ceramic material. Its applications are widespread, and include spark plugs, tap washers, pump seals, electronic substrates, grinding media, abrasion resistant tiles, cutting tools, bioceramics, (hip-joints), body armour, laboratory ware and wear parts for the textile and paper industries. Very large tonnages are also used in the manufacture of monolithic and brick refractories. It is also used mixed with other materials such as flake graphite where even more severe applications are envisaged, such as pouring spouts and sliding gate valves.
Key Properties

The characteristics which alumina has and which are important for these applications are shown below.

· High compression strength

· High hardness

· Resistant to abrasion

· Resistant to chemical attack by a wide range of chemicals even at elevated temperatures

· High thermal conductivity

· Resistant to thermal shock

· High degree of refractoriness

· High dielectric strength

· High electrical resistivity even at elevated temperatures

· Transparent to microwave radio frequencies

· Low neutron cross section capture area

· Raw material readily available and price not subject to violent fluctuation
Annual Production

Annual production of alumina is some 45 million tonnes, of which 90% is used in the manufacture of aluminium metal by electrolysis.
Where Does Alumina Come From?

Most of the aluminium oxide produced commercially is obtained by the calcination of aluminium hydroxide (frequently termed alumina trihydrate or ATH). The aluminium hydroxide is virtually all made by the Bayer Process. This involves the digestion of bauxite in caustic soda and the subsequent precipitation of aluminium hydroxide by the addition of fine seed crystals of aluminium hydroxide.
Phases of Alumina

Aluminium oxide exists in many forms, a, c, h, d, k, q, g, r; these arise during the heat treatment of aluminium hydroxide or aluminium oxy hydroxide. The most thermodynamically stable form is a-aluminium oxide.

Photovoltaic Materials – Gallium Arsenide

2006-12-15T02:05:00.000-08:00

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a compound semiconductor: a mixture of two elements, gallium (Ga) and arsenic (As). Gallium is a by-product of the smelting of other metals, notably aluminium and zinc, and it is rarer than gold. Arsenic is not rare, but it is poisonous. Gallium arsenide's use in solar cells has been developing synergistically with its use in light-emitting diodes, lasers, and other optoelectronic devices.

GaAs is especially suitable for use in multijunction and high-efficiency solar cells for several reasons:

· The GaAs band gap is 1.43 eV, nearly ideal for single-junction solar cells.

· GaAs has an absorptivity so high it requires a cell only a few microns thick to absorb sunlight. (Crystalline silicon requires a layer 100 microns or more in thickness.)

· Unlike silicon cells, GaAs cells are relatively insensitive to heat. (Cell temperatures can often be quite high, especially in concentrator applications.)

· Alloys made from GaAs using aluminium, phosphorus, antimony, or indium have characteristics complementary to those of gallium arsenide, allowing great flexibility in cell design.

· GaAs is very resistant to radiation damage. This, along with its high efficiency, makes GaAs very desirable for space applications.

One of the greatest advantages of gallium arsenide and its alloys as PV cell materials is the wide range of design options possible. A cell with a GaAs base can have several layers of slightly different compositions that allow a cell designer to precisely control the generation and collection of electrons and holes. (To accomplish the same thing, silicon cells have been limited to variations in the level of doping.) This degree of control allows cell designers to push efficiencies closer and closer to theoretical levels. For example, one of the most common GaAs cell structures uses a very thin window layer of aluminium gallium arsenide. This thin layer allows electrons and holes to be created close to the electric field at the junction.
Drawbacks and Opportunities

The greatest barrier to the success of GaAs cells has been the high cost of a single-crystal GaAs substrate. For this reason, GaAs cells are used primarily in concentrator systems, where the typical concentrator cell is about 0.25 cm2 in area and can produce ample power under high concentrations. In this configuration, the cost is low enough to make GaAs cells competitive, assuming that module efficiencies can reach between 25% and 30% and that the cost of the rest of the system can be reduced. Researchers are also exploring approaches to lowering the cost of GaAs devices, such as fabricating GaAs cells on cheaper substrates; growing GaAs cells on a removable, reusable GaAs substrate; and even making GaAs thin films similar to those of copper indium diselenide and cadmium telluride.
High-Efficiency Concepts and Concentrators

High-efficiency solar cells based on gallium arsenide (GaAs) and related "III-V" materials have historically been used in space applications. Current goals are to take this technology a step further by developing it as a concentrator technology and expanding it to include triple-junction devices. Devices are also being investigated using low-cost substrates (such as glass). The long-term objective for researchers is to establish III-V materials as a competitive terrestrial PV technology by developing the materials science, advancing related science and engineering, coordinating relationships with industry and university partners, and facilitating commercialisation.

Gallium

2006-12-14T02:05:00.000-08:00

Gallium was predicted and described by Mendeleev as ekaaluminum, and discovered spectroscopically by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875. That same year Lecoq de Boisbaudran obtained the free metal by electrolysis of a solution of the hydroxide in KOH. Gallium can be found as a trace element in diaspore, sphalerite, germanite, bauxite and coal. Gallium exists in nature in about the same amount as lead, but it is widely dissipated and not found concentrated in any ore. It is mainly recovered from the smelter flue dust of zinc ores and as a by-product of copper smelting and aluminium production.

Along side mercury, caesium/cesium and rubidium, gallium is the only metal which can be liquid near room temperatures. It possesses one of the longest liquid ranges of any metal and a low vapour pressure even at elevated temperatures. Gallium has a strong tendency to supercool below its freezing point, making seeding necessary to initiate solidification.

High purity gallium exhibits a beautiful silvery white appearance (resembling mercury). Like glass, it exhibits a conchoidal fracture. Upon solidifying gallium expands 3.8% and hence should not be stored in glass containers. When it is made under certain conditions gallium exhibits superconductivity at –262°C (-440°F).

Pure gallium is resistant to mineral acids and dissolves with difficulty in caustic alkali. It forms numerous salts at different valences. In the molten state it attacks other metals.
Applications

Because of it wide liquid temperature range gallium finds uses for high-temperature thermometers. It is used as a wetting agent in tin-lead solders, which also decreases the solders susceptibility to oxidation.

Gallium is used as an electron carrier in silicon semiconductors. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is used as a semiconductor and in rectifiers that operate at temperatures to 316°C (600°F). Gallium arsenide is capable of converting electricity directly into coherent light. It is also used in lenses in CO2 laser systems.

As an alloying agent to reduce the melting point of the alloy.

Magnesium gallate containing divalent impurities such as Mn2+ is finding use in commercial ultraviolet activated powders phosphors.

Gallium selenide (GaSe) and gallium triiodide (GaI3) are used on electronic applications.

Fuel Cells – Fuel Cell Types, Operation and Materials – Sigma Aldrich

2006-12-13T22:49:00.000-08:00

Fuel cells offer the promise of a clean energy source for stationary power generation. They produce energy from hydrogen, natural gas, alcohol, or other readily available hydrocarbon fuels (see Figure 1). Fuel cells date back to the nineteenth century when Grove, in 1839, first published his work on the generation of electricity by partially immersing two platinum electrodes and separately supplying oxygen and hydrogen to them. There is considerable current interest in fuel cells as an environmentally clean alternative to fossil-fuel-burning power sources.

AZoM - Metals, Ceramics, Polymer and Composites : Fuel Cells – Schematic of a typical polymeric electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell.

Figure 1. Schematic of a typical polymeric electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell.
Commercialization of Fuel Cell Powered Vehicles

Purely fuel cell powered vehicles are currently being tested as prototypes with plans for eventual commercialization by as early as 2010. Some of these vehicles are already in operation in municipal organizations around the world.
Types of Fuel Cells and Their Operation

Fuel cells are distinguished by types of electrolytes they utilize (see Table 1), but they all generally follow the same redox chemistry. The principle behind fuels cells is similar to that of batteries but, since they are fuel-driven, they do not need to be recharged nor do they run down. Most fuel cells operate by oxidizing hydrogen at the anode and reducing the resulting H+ to water with atmospheric oxygen at the cathode, producing heat and electricity

Fuel Cells

2006-12-12T22:49:00.001-08:00

There are five main types of fuel cells currently undergoing research. They are all at differing levels of commercialisation and are being considered for different applications. Each of the fuel cells operates at different temperatures and utilises different electrolytes. All of the fuel cells considered operate essentially on hydrogen though those operating at higher temperatures offer the possibility of internal conversion (reforming) of hydrocarbon fuels to yield hydrogen. The higher temperature fuel cells also offer advantages in terms of efficiency. It is these fuel cells which rely on ceramic electrolytes for their operation.

The five main types of fuel cell are:

· Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

· Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

· Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

· Solid Polymer Fuel Cells (SPFC)

· Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

In this design the phosphoric acid electrolyte is contained between two porous graphite electrodes coated with a platinum catalyst. Hydrogen is used as the fuel and oxygen as the oxidant. The operating temperature is between 180°C and 210°C. This fuel cell is the closest to commercialisation for large-scale power generation. This is because its development started earlier and a great deal of effort and finance was put into the PAFC during the initial stages [1]. The electrical efficiency of the PAFC units are ~40% with combined heat and power units achieving ~70% [2].

As of August 1999, a total of 180 plants with a total rated power of 46.26MW had been installed in Japan. Among these plants, 106 were installed by gas utilities with the other 74 being sited in breweries, water and sewage works, electrolyser plant and at Epson’s Nagano Works [3].
Disadvantages with PAFC’s

There are several disadvantages associated with the PAFC design. These include the need to use the expensive noble metal, platinum, as electrodes. Furthermore the electrodes are susceptible to CO poisoning and the electrolyte in the fuel cells is a corrosive liquid which, is consumed during operation [4].
Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

In the AFC the aqueous potassium hydroxide acts not only as an electrolyte but also as a coolant. It conducts hydroxyl ions from cathode to anode and depending upon the weight percentage of the hydroxide in the electrolyte can operate at temperatures between 60 and 120°C or as high as 250°C [2]. The cells require very pure hydrogen and oxygen as the fuel and oxidant as they cannot tolerate even the atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide. Due to the requirement for pure gases, the AFC would not be economically viable for terrestrial power applications. However, they do demonstrate high power densities and have an established space application. Today there are three AFC power plants used in the space shuttle Orbiter, supplying 12kW maximum power [16].
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

The MCFC has a molten mixture of alkali carbonates, Li2CO3 and K2CO3, as the electrolyte. Both the electrodes are nickel based, the anode consisting of a nickel chromium mix. The 10% chromium is required to maintain the porosity of the anode structure. These cells can be run on a variety of fuels and one of their interesting features is their operating temperature (~ 650°C), which is high enough for the direct conversion of natural gas to be performed at the anode [5].

The potential market for MCFC systems is thought to be in co-generation applications. The electrical efficiency of the MCFC unit is ~ 50% and in combined heat and power applications efficiencies could reach up to 90% [7]. Currently, the MCFC technology is entering the 0.1-2MW demonstration phase in order to confirm the initial indications of performance and efficiency [7].

Electrolyte Materials For Use in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) and Fuel Processing - Supplier Data by NexTech Materials

2006-12-11T22:48:00.000-08:00

Fuel Cell Materials, a wholly-owned division of NexTech Materials, Ltd. commercializes innovative ceramic materials technology and products developed by NexTech. These technologies and products are applicable to the developing solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and fuel processing markets.

Current products include SOFC components, SOFC materials (electrolytes, cathodes, and anodes), as well as catalyst materials used in fuel processors for hydrocarbon fuel cell systems or stand-alone hydrogen generators.

Coating Techniques to Improve Wear or Corrosion Resistance or Rejuvenate Worn Parts by Dynamic Ceramic Ltd

2006-12-10T22:47:00.000-08:00

Producing solid ceramic components is not always the best approach to solving a wear or corrosion problems. In many cases, taking the original metallic part and applying a coating can be the best solution.
Coating Thicknesses

Coatings can vary from a few to several hundred microns and be deposited by different means.

The coating, its thickness and means of deposition will depend on the final use of the components and the environment it has to resist.
Coating Techniques

There are a wide variety of surface coatings available. Brief details of the most commonly used coatings are given below. If you have a specific coating requirement please contact Dynamic-Ceramic for expert assistance.
Extending Component Life

It is a fact of life that many components are deemed to be worn out when their surfaces have degraded beyond a predetermined limit. This limit may vary from the appearance of minor pitting or scoring marks in bearing surfaces to the removal of several millimetres of material from the bucket of an excavating tool.

However, the useful life of many components, which are unsuitable to be made from advanced ceramics, may be extended by coating with a material tailored to resist the particular environment in which the component is working. These include thermal barrier coatings as used in gas turbines and on piston crowns in large diesel engines; low friction and anti-seizure coatings as used in lubricant free bearings; wear resistant or "hard-facing" coatings as used for the treatment of valves in internal combustion engines and finally corrosion resistant coatings as used in the chemicals industry.
Coating Techniques and Deposition Thickness

Coatings may be applied by many different techniques with coating thickness' varying from several microns to several millimetres. Thin coatings are usually applied by Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD), Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) and Chemically Formed Processes (CFP) with other techniques e.g. High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF), plasma and flame spraying together with Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA), weld over-laying and laser cladding, being used to deposit thicker coatings.
Rejuvenating Worn Components

Some of these techniques are also capable of building-up worn components to their original tolerances, thus reducing both waste and replacement costs

Contamination Problems From Metal and Plastic Gears Solved By Insaco With Precision Ceramic Gearing

2006-12-09T22:48:00.000-08:00

A semiconductor processor was having contamination problems from metal and plastic gears due to intense chemical, thermal and high vacuum conditions. They were considering technical ceramics for chemical resistance, however precision pinion gear teeth must be not only uniform, but strong enough to survive load.
Solution

Based on fine features and point stresses in application of a precision ceramic gear Insaco recommended Yttria blended tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (YTZP) ceramic material for toughness and resistance to chipping. The fine grain and unique crystal orientation actually absorb energy to fight fissure or crack propagation.

AZoM - The A to Z of Materials - Machined hard ceramic gears

Because of many years experience machining sapphire as well as YTZP, Insaco was able to provide both materials. The precision machining required to generate useful gear profiles in sapphire was challenging, but the result allowed our customer to proceed confidently with technical trials. YTZP zirconia, being more robust, may still be the ultimate choice for production, but having the choice to fabricate with either material was the key to successful early trials.